Numbers cannot just appear out of nowhere but must be derived from existing numbers. The information for the limits of atoms, such as how many protons they can have, must come from multiples of the information in the original atoms that formed at the beginning of the universe.
This posting is long, but this is something that has never been seen before. It is divided into sections A-K.
As with all of my writing here, I present it so that you can see with your own reasoning that it must be correct. I never ask anyone to just believe something that I am writing about.
Remember that all around you, every day, there are things that no one has ever pointed out. This began because it caught my attention that there were 4 original atoms that formed in the universe after the Big Bang, with 14 total nucleons between them. 4 x 14 = 56, and 56 is the number of nucleons in an iron atom, which is as far as the ordinary fusion process in stars goes.
It is true that actually five different atoms form, because there is the stable isotope of helium with two protons and only one neutron, helium-3. But nature seems to regard that as an incomplete version of the far more common helium-4, with two neutrons, and the universe operates, as we will see, as if there were four original atoms.
I wondered if this was just a coincidence and decided to look further. This posting has been added to "The Lowest Information Point", on this blog.
There are so many simple arithmetical relationships involving atoms and their formation that I cannot see documented anywhere.
The "factor tree" of how elements form from lighter elements during fusion taking place in stars is well-known. As a simple example, a helium nucleus, which is also known as an Alpha Particle, has two protons and two neutrons. Helium, being heavier than hydrogen, is more likely to get crunched together, by the gravity in stars, into heavier elements. In the beginning, the atoms in the universe were about 25% helium but today helium represents less than 10%. If the star were to crunch three of them together, the result would be a carbon atom with six protons and six neutrons. Four of them together would result in an oxygen atom with eight protons and eight neutrons.
(Note- The reality is a little bit more complex because electrons can be crunched into protons to create neutrons, known as K-capture. This is why heavier elements have more neutrons, but fewer protons and electrons, than the lighter atoms from which they were formed).
There is also the well-known "Magic Numbers", of nucleons in the nucleus, which denote an especially stable nucleus. The "Magic Numbers" can apply to either protons or neutrons. Stability is conferred on a nucleus in either the number of protons or the number of neutrons is a magic number. The few nuclei that have a "Magic Number" of both are referred to as "Double Magic".
But what I find is that neither of these factors fully explains the relative abundances of different elements in the universe. There must be another factor at work.
There is also the question of why the limits that are seen in the formation of heavy atoms by the nucleo-synthesis of lighter atoms in stars. Ordinary fusion in stars goes only as far as iron, the atom with 26 protons and 56 overall nucleons. But why is this the limit of ordinary fusion, known as the S-process for slow, goes?
Elements heavier than iron are formed only during the actual explosion of a large star in a supernova. That is why elements up to iron tend to be far more common than those heavier than iron. But this stage of fusion, known as the R-process for rapid, has it's limit also. It only goes as far as uranium, the atom with 92 protons and usually 238 overall nucleons, which is the heaviest natural element.
But there is no explanation of why these limits are what they are. Why couldn't there be more elements, or fewer?
(Note-In terms of nuclear science, "heavier" means an element higher on the periodic table, with more protons and more overall nucleons than another element. As we might expect, the more nucleons in the atom of an element the more it is likely to weigh if we put it on a scale. But this is not a strict rule. In nuclear terms, zinc is heavier than iron because it's atom has more protons and more overall nucleons. But if we weigh equal volumes of the two metals, we find that iron weighs more because it is denser).
According to my theory of "The Lowest Information Point", a state of the least information is favored in the universe. The least complex numbers are not necessarily the lowest numbers, but fractions or ratios with the lowest denominators. Remember that the complexity of a number is the value of the denominator when the number is expressed as a fraction or ratio. The lowest non-zero number is 1. This means that the numbers representing the Lowest Information State are ratios or fractions with a denominator of 1. These numbers are usually simply referred to as integers. Whole numbers with no fractions or decimal points.
The universe must begin with integers, because they are the simplest numbers. Before there can be 1.5 or 1.3, there must first be 1.
Notice how the electrons in orbitals around the nuclei of atoms, as one example, always revolve around integers. The Principal Quantum Number, in an electron's unique four-part "quantum address", is an integer that is referred to as N and designates the shells of electron orbitals. The maximum number of electrons in an given shell is 2 (N squared). This means that the maximum number of electrons for each shell, proceeding outward from the nucleus, are 2, 8, 18, 32...
The second component of the four-part "quantum address" of an electron is the Azimuthal Quantum Number, and concerns sub-shells, but are still all integers. This number is designated as L and the maximum number of electrons in any sub-shell, which are within the shells as described above, is defined as 2 (2L + 1). The sub-shells are defined as S=1, P=2, D=3, F=4.
This means, for example, that the second orbital in an atom, N=2, can have a maximum of 8 electrons. If it had that many, the first 4 would be in the S sub-shell and the rest in the P sub-shell.
But the point I am trying to make is that somewhere, matter and the universe must begin with integers and we can easily see this at the most basic levels of atoms. There must be 1 before there can be 1.5 because 1 is the Lowest Information Point.
The concept of the Lowest Information Point can be summed up as the universe preferring that, if there are more than one dimension to something, that those dimensions be equal because that would involve less information than if they were unequal.
Another way of putting it is that if there are two related ratios, A / B = B / C is a lower information state, and is thus preferred, than A / B = C / D. The reason is that the first contains only three points of information, A, B and, C because B is used twice, while the second contains four. The first ratio works with a number that is already there, and is thus a lower information point, and thus is preferred by the universe.
This means that the universe would reuse numbers.
D) THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE
When atoms first formed in the early universe, hydrogen was of course the first because it is the lightest and simplest of all atoms, with only one proton and one electron. But there was still enough heat energy from the Big Bang to fuse hydrogen atoms together into heavier ones, in what is called primordial nucleo-synthesis.
Several different kinds of atom thus formed. By the time that atoms without stability had broken down, the universe was left with four different stable atoms. There were two isotopes of hydrogen, with just the one proton and a second isotope with one neutron as well. Hydrogen with a neutron in the nucleus is known as deuterium. If you have heard of "heavy water", it refers to water where the two hydrogen atoms in the H2O molecule are deuterium instead of ordinary hydrogen, without a neutron.
There was one isotope of helium, two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus. The fourth atom was lithium, with three protons and four neutrons in the nucleus. Let's refer to these as the First Stage Atoms.
So the first atoms that were formed from the original hydrogen by primordial nucleo-synthesis were four different atoms with fourteen total nucleons, which means both protons and neutrons. These numbers must be points of information, which would go into building the larger-scale universe.
What happens if we multiply 4 x 14? We get 56.
The first atoms are pulled together by gravity into stars. A star begins to shine when gravity is strong enough to overcome the electron repulsion that keeps atoms apart. Smaller atoms are fused together by gravity into larger ones. The resulting larger atom contains less total energy than the smaller ones which were fused together to form it. This excess energy is released as radiation, which is why stars shine. A star is an equilibrium between the outward force of the energy of the fusion and the inward force of gravity.
But, as we saw above, ordinary fusion in stars can only go so far. The heaviest atom that can be produced by ordinary stellar fusion is iron. The sun is a second-generation star following a large star that exploded, after going as far as the ordinary fusion process goes, and scattered it's component matter across space. That is why iron is so plentiful in the inner Solar System. Mercury is known as the "Iron Planet", Mars is red due to rust (iron oxides), and the most abundant element in the earth by mass is iron.
Iron is an atom with 56 nucleons, 26 protons and 30 neutrons. Remember that 4 x 14 = 56.
The First Stage Atoms, those formed by primordial nucleo-synthesis in the beginning of the universe, were four different atoms but only three elements, because there were the two isotopes of hydrogen. This means that, to get to iron with it's 26 protons, 23 additional elements had to form by stellar nucleo-synthesis, which we can call the Second Stage Atoms.
What happens if we multiple our original 4 x 23? We get 92. This is the atomic number, the number of protons, of uranium.
The ordinary fusion process only goes as far as iron. But the largest stars can actually explode in what is known as a supernova, which is how the sun and the solar system came to be as the debris from a supernova fell back together to form the sun as a second-generation star. During the explosion a tremendous amount of energy is released and some of this energy goes to fusing atoms together into still heavier ones, which would never have formed by the ordinary fusion process. This can form atoms up to uranium. We can refer to these as Third Stage Atoms.
Remember that what I mean by the ordinary fusion process is the so-called S-process, for "slow". This is the process that fuses together elements up to iron. Elements heavier than that are only formed during the actual explosion of the star, by the tremendous energy released. This is known as the R-process, for "rapid", and explains why elements that are heavier than iron tend to be exponentially less common then iron and lighter elements.
Some of these heavier elements that consist of lighter atoms that were crunched together by the energy of the R-process during the actual supernova explosion are less-than-stable, and gradually release electromagnetic radiation or particles in an effort to gain more stability. This release process is known as radioactivity.
Uranium is an atom with 92 protons. Remember that 4 x 23 = 92.
The products of the First Stage give the limits of the Second Stage. The products of the First and Second Stage gives the limits of the Third Stage. This represents the Lowest Information Point.
Protons and neutrons, collectively known as nucleons, are not the only components of the atom. The electrons in orbitals around the nucleus each have 1 / 1836 the mass of a proton, but with an equal but opposite negative charge. The first thing we notice about 1,836 is that it is a very round and easily divisible number. We can divide 1,836 evenly repeatedly, first by 3 and then by 2, until we eventually get to 17, which is a prime number that cannot be further evenly divided.
The information about electrons is important for the nucleus of the atom because neutrons are made by crunching an electron into a proton during nucleo-synthesis in stars.
We notice that 17 is the total number of nucleons, 14, added to the number of elements, which is 3, in the atoms that were formed by primordial nucleo-synthesis. Remember that there were 4 different atoms but only 3 elements because there were two final isotopes of hydrogen that formed.
There was actually trace amounts of another primordial atom that formed, helium with only one neutron instead of the usual two, and known as helium 3. The Special Numbers seem to consider that as just an incomplete atom of ordinary helium, known as helium 4 with two neutrons. But if we do consider this as one of the original atoms, this gives us 17 total nucleons.
What happens if we multiply 14 x 17? We get 238.
238 is the total number of nucleons in the heaviest stable isotope of uranium, which is the heaviest naturally occurring element. The vast majority of uranium atoms have 238 nucleons, which include the 92 protons. The 235 nucleon isotope of uranium is what is used for nuclear fission, the opposite of fusion.
Now we can see that 17, 14 and, 23 are Special Numbers, here is something really interesting. If we multiply 14 x 23 we get 322. If we add up all of the nucleons, which are both protons and neutrons, in the heaviest stable isotopes of all of the elements up to and including element 17, which is chlorine, they add up to 322.
Can you see how the same numbers, and products of those numbers, keep getting used over again in determining the limits of atoms? That is because of this principle of the Lowest Information Point.
E) THE PROTON AND NUCLEON ROOTS
All four of the different atoms that formed during primordial nucleo-synthesis, the beginning of the universe, went into being fused together in stars into larger atoms, the Second Stage and Third Stage atoms. But the heavier two of the First Stage atoms, helium and lithium, were more drawn into fusion simply because they were heavier. Also, the heavier isotope of hydrogen, deuterium the one with the neutron, was more likely to be drawn into fusion than the lightest isotope of hydrogen, with only the one proton. This is why the universe started with about 25% of atoms being helium, but today the figure is less than 10%.
The number of nucleons in the heaviest two of the primordial atoms, helium and lithium, was 11, rather than the 14 total. The two heaviest of the four atoms were much more likely to be drawn into fusion but there was also the heavier isotope of hydrogen. This gives us the numbers 11, 2 and, 3, rather than the 14 and 4.
If we multiply 11 x 2, we get 22. This is the number of new atoms that are added to the First Stage to form the Second Stage. There are 23 new elements, but only 22 new atoms because we started with two different isotopes of hydrogen.
If we then multiply that 22 x 3, which the number of original elements even though there were four different atoms, we get 66. This is the number of elements that are added to the Second Stage to get the Third Stage, the elements from iron to uranium. There are 66 elements heavier than iron, up to uranium.
If we multiply 11 x 23, which is the number of new elements in the Second Stage atoms which get to iron which is element number 26, we get 253. This is the total number of stable nuclides in all atoms. A nuclide, similar in concept to an isotope, is any different combination of protons and neutrons, without regard to which element it forms, remember that elements are defined by the number of protons (atomic number).
This shows how information operates. A number involved with the primordial atoms is a point of information that is introduced into the universe. It does not matter at all how many or how few of each atom there are. In the early universe, there were only a trace amount of lithium that formed, and far more of the lightest isotope of hydrogen than anything else. But even so, each counts as a point of information.
Just as protons, along with neutrons, are included in the total number of nucleons in a nucleus, so we can see that the numbers that are the Proton Roots are included in the numbers of the Nucleon Roots.
The Nucleon Roots are the numbers involved with the number of original atoms (First Stage) and their total number of nucleons. The Nucleon Roots are 4 and 14, the number of different atoms and their total number of nucleons. These numbers tend to be involved in the numbers of nucleons, 4 x 14 = 56, which is the total number of nucleons in an iron atom which is as far as the ordinary fusion process goes (Second Stage).
The Proton Roots consider the number of nucleons in only the 2 heaviest of the four original atoms, helium and lithium, because there were far more likely to be pulled into fusion, due to their heavier mass, than the two hydrogen isotopes. Their total number of nucleons is 11. It also considers the difference between protons and neutrons in that there were 3 elements present in the original atoms, even though there were four atoms because two were isotopes of hydrogen.
So the Proton Roots are 2, 3 and, 11. These numbers tend to be involved in the number of protons, rather than in the total number of nucleons. It is the number of protons that we use to define elements (atomic number). If we multiply 2 x 11 = 22, we get the number of new elements that are added to the four original atoms to get the 26 elements, up to iron, that are in the First and Second Stages. If we then multiply that by 3, we get the 66 new elements that are added to the 26 to get the total 92 elements, up to uranium, that are in all three stages. The 66 elements are the Third Stage.
(Note-Just something interesting. It may seem that I am "jumping over" an element here in stating that there are 22 new atoms added to the original 4 to get the 26 elements, up to iron, that completes the Second Stage. But there were only 3 elements to begin with, even though 4 different atoms, so that seems to give us only 25, rather than 26.
But what we are discussing after the First Stage, the original 4 atoms, is the further atoms that were formed by stellar fusion. It turns out that the next element after lithium, beryllium with 4 protons, is not believed to form with stability in stars. It is a rare element that is actually formed by cosmic ray spallation, heavier elements having their atoms broken down into smaller atoms by high-speed cosmic rays. This means that I am not really "jumping over" an element).
F) IRON AND THE PLANETARY ORBITS
Here is something really amazing. We have seen this before but I am going to add it to this posting. The information of the numbers being reused, in accordance with the Lowest Information Point, applies beyond atoms.
Have you ever wondered why the orbits of the planets in the Solar System are spaced as they are? Each planet has it's own orbit around the sun, but these orbits are unevenly spaced. This is information which must have come from somewhere. There is a formula for the spacing of the orbits of the planets but still, the information must have come from somewhere.
Like all elements that were formed by fusion, iron was put together by factors. Just as a number, such as 12, has the factors of 2, 3, 4 and, 6, the factors of iron are the smaller atoms that were crunched together by fusion, in several stages, to form iron with it's 26 protons and 56 overall nucleons. There are several routes by which smaller atoms could be crunched together to form an iron atom.
If we look at the common numerical factors that iron's 26 protons and 56 overall nucleons might have, the most obvious is that 56 = ( 4 x 4 ) + ( 4 x 10 ) and 26 = ( 4 x 4 ) + ( 1 x 10 ). So, if we were going to compare 26 and 56 in terms of their common factors, this would make the most sense because it is the Lowest Information Point, meaning that it uses the least number of different numbers on each side of the equation.
So the star that preceded the sun exploded as a supernova, scattering it's matter across space. Some of it fell back together by gravity to form the sun and planets. There is information in the spacing of the planetary orbits, which could only have somehow come from the supernova. It has been known since the Eighteenth Century that there is a formula for the spacing of the planetary orbits, known as Bode's Law, but even so, according to my theory of how information flows through the universe, the information must have somehow come from the explosion of the supernova.
Suppose that we start with the numbers 0 and 3. The 3 represents the three original elements (even though there were four different atoms) or the number of quarks that make up a nucleon, which is either a proton or neutron. The 0 represents the empty space in which both the nucleon and the entire Solar System exists. Remember how the information theory explains distance, whether or not it is empty space, as information.
Since two types of nucleons, protons and neutrons, make up the 56 nucleons in an iron atom, which is as far as the ordinary fusion process goes, let's then continue multiplying our 3 by successive multiples of 2, because the two heaviest of the original atoms were the ones most likely to undergo fusion, with each successive product representing the orbit of a planet.
This gives us 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192.
We still have our 4 and our 10 as described in the factors above. But if we add 4 to each number, we get:
4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100, 196.
If we then divide each number by our 10, we get:
.4, .7, 1, 1.6, 2.8, 5.2, 10, 19.6
Incredibly, these numbers are just about exactly representative of the relative distances of the planets from the sun, with the 2.8 representing the center of the asteroid belt. Just by chance, the earth's distance from the sun is the 1. We sometimes refer to the average distance of the earth, 93 million miles or 145 million km, from the sun as an Astronomical Unit, or AU.
Another way of looking at it is that if we take out ( 2 x 3 ), multiply it by 10, and subtract 4, we get the 56 nucleons of iron, which is as far as the fusion process went before the supernova.
The supernova is an outward explosion, and thus a dramatic reversal of the inward fusion process. So if we start with the ( 2 x 3 ) and then undertake a mirror image reversal of the operations with the 4 and 10, we would add 4 and then divide by 10, and that would give us the sequence that is just about exactly representative of the distances of the orbits of the planets from the sun. We don't have to divide by ten but, if we do, the distance between the earth and the sun is conveniently represented as 1.
If the 1 of the earth's average distance from the sun is 93 million miles or 145 million km then the distances from the sun to the other planets would be as follows:
Mercury-37. 2 million miles or 58 million km
Venus-65.1 million miles or 101.5 million km
Mars-148.8 million miles or 232 million km
Center of asteroid belt-260.4 million miles or 406 million km
Jupiter-483 million miles or 754 km
Saturn-930 million miles or 1450 million km
Uranus-1822 million miles or 2842 million km
Considering that the 93 million miles or 145 million km is just an average distance of the earth from the sun, the earth is actually about 91 million miles, or 142 million km, from the sun in January and about 95 million miles, or 148 million km, in June, these figures are amazingly close to the actual distances of the planets from the sun.
The one planet that does not fit this model well is Neptune, the outermost planet after Uranus. The formula predicts that the orbit of Neptune should be 38.8 times as far from the sun as the earth, but it's average distance from the sun is actually only 30.1.
But if we apply this to Pluto, which is no longer considered as a planet, we find that it fits very well.
This formula predicting the orbital distances of planets from the sun has long been known. But it is information, and information must have come from somewhere. My theory of how information flows through the universe shows how it came from the information in the fusion process. After the star exploded, and much of the matter came back together by gravity to form the sun and Solar System, that information could not just be lost. It had to be manifested somehow.
There has been a lot of effort to find where this formula of the distances of the planets from the sun came from. The answer was right in front of us, we just had to apply this concept of how information flows through the universe, from lowest to highest levels, and how information, like energy, must be manifested and can never be created or destroyed, because information is really the same thing as energy.
If we start with our ( 2 x 3 ), multiply by 10 and then subtract 4, we get the 56 that is the number of nucleons in an iron atom which is the final stage in the fusion process of the large star before it explodes in the supernova which creates the new solar system with the planets.
If we then reverse this, because the outward supernova explosion which resulted in the formation of the planets is a reversal of the inward fusion which formed the iron, we start with the same ( 2 x 3 ) but from there reverse the formula, by adding 4 and dividing by 10, we get the sequence of numbers which describes the spacing of the planetary orbitals from the sun with amazing accuracy.
So the information of 56 nucleons in iron, which is as far as the ordinary fusion process went before the large star which preceded the sun exploded as a supernova and scattered it's component matter across space, provides the information for the spacing of the planets of our solar system which formed from that component matter.
(Note-The information of the numbers 2 and 3 has another source. Nucleons, whether protons or neutrons, are each made of 3 quarks, with two different arrangements of these quarks making either a proton or neutron. An up quark has a charge of + 2 / 3, while a down quark has a charge of - 1 / 3. Two up quarks and a down quark make a proton, with a net charge of +1. Two down quarks and an up quark make a neutron, with a net charge of zero. During fusion and radioactivity, a neutron can be made from a proton, or vice versa, by crunching an electron into a proton or ejecting one from a neutron. The information of the number 2 could have come, of course, simply from the number of fundamental electric charges that makes up everything in the universe).
G) 8 IS A SPECIAL NUMBER BOTH IN THE NUCLEUS AND IN THE ELECTRON ORBITALS
As a general rule, as we move to heavier elements there are a greater number of neutrons relative to protons in the nucleus. The total number of protons and neutrons together are referred to as nucleons. A nucleon is thus either a proton or a neutron. Take gold, for example, it has 197 nucleons of which 79 are protons. That means that it's nucleon-to-proton ratio is 197 / 79, or nearly 2.5. Helium, in contrast as a much-lighter element, has four nucleon of which two are protons so that it's total nucleon-to-proton ratio is exactly 2.0.
The usual pattern is for the nucleon-to-proton ratio to increase as we move to heavier elements. We saw that the light helium has a nucleon-to-proton ratio of 2, while the heavy gold has a ratio of nearly 2.5. But the lowest nucleon-to-proton ratio is actually oxygen, which has 8 protons. Considering the isotopes of oxygen, and their differing atomic mass, it's nucleon-to-proton mass ratio is actually slightly below 2.
If this ratio should increase as we move to heavier elements, then how could oxygen with it's 8 protons have a ratio that is actually lower than helium, which has only 2 protons? This requires some special explanation.
Also, logic would seem to dictate that the lighter an element is the more abundant it would be and the heavier the less abundant. But oxygen, the atom with 8 protons, is actually the most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium.
We see, by looking at a periodic table with the average atomic mass of each element, that the ratio does not increase at an even rate. For one thing Lithium, with 3 protons, has a higher nucleon-to-proton mass ratio than Beryllium, which has 4 protons. In fact we see that atoms among the lighter atoms with protons in multiples of 3, have a higher ratio than atoms whose number of protons are multiples of 2 or 4.
We have seen, in my cosmology theory, how special is the number 8 with regard to the electrons in orbitals in an atom. There are rules governing electrons in atomic orbitals. Electrons orbit the nucleus within well-defined shells. There are a certain number of electrons in each shell. The chemical behavior of an atom is determined entirely by the arrangement of electrons in the outermost orbital shell of the atom.
At most, there are eight electrons in the outermost shell. If more than eight electrons fill into the outer shell, the atom will start a new shell. There is a maximum of 32 electrons, which is a multiple of 8 ( 4 x 8 ), in any orbital shell of any atom. The number of electrons in each shell of an atom of a given element is known as the electron configuration.
If an atom has from one to three electrons in the outermost shell, out of the maximum of eight, it will tend to lose those to the other atom. If an atom has six or seven outer electrons, it will gain more electrons when bonding with another atom. But if the atom has four or five outer electrons, it will tend to share those with the other atom. This keeps eight electrons on the outside of molecules, and is known as the "Octet Rule".
This also explains why an atom of oxygen with 8 protons has the lowest nucleon-to-proton mass ratio of any atom. There is definitely something special about the number eight.
(Note-By the way, how special the number 8 is in the universe cannot seen to have come from atoms, unlike all of the other Special Numbers. So it must have come from somewhere else. Remember that all of these atoms exist in space. My cosmology theory has it that the matter of the universe is scattered over four spatial dimensions, and there are two opposite directions in each dimension. It is thus confirmation of my cosmology theory that 8 is clearly a Special Number with regard to atoms, but cannot be seen to have come from the atoms themselves).
Now that we see how important iron's 56 total nucleons are, and we see how important the number 8 is to matter in the universe, what happens if we divide 56 by 8? We get 7, and this number should thus be important in atoms and in the stars which fuse them together.
Notice that there are 7 types of Main Sequence stars. Main Sequence simply refers to stars that are still using hydrogen as fuel. These star types are O,B,A,F,G,K and, M. The sun is one of these stars, in the process of fusing four hydrogen atoms into one helium atom. Stars that have moved beyond burning hydrogen, red giants, white dwarfs and neutrons stars, are off the Main Sequence.
Why would there be 7 different types? If the stars were using the same kind of atoms as fuel why wouldn't there be just one type? This information for the number 7 has to come from somewhere.
There are also about 7 atoms that are much more common than all of the others. 26 elements are found with the original atoms and those produced by fusing them together. A total of 92 elements can be formed naturally if we include those produced when the energy of a supernova is released. Of all of these, why should about 7 be far more common then the rest? I refer to this as "The Rule Of Common Atoms" that we saw in "The Flow Of Information Through The Universe".
Not only that, there are 7 of the "Magic Numbers", as described at the beginning of this article, that confer special stability on a nucleus if there are a magic number of either protons or neutrons or, better yet, both.
H) THE MOST COMMON ELEMENTS BETWEEN IRON AND URANIUM
The First and Second Stage elements, up to iron, are exponentially more common then the Third Stage elements, from iron to uranium. The reason being that the Third Stage elements are formed only during the actual explosion of a large star in a supernova (R-process), and not by the ordinary fusion process (S-process).
The only Third Stage elements that we might deal with on a daily basis, other than gold and silver which are rare, are copper, zinc, tin and, lead. Zinc is used in galvanizing sheet metal so that it will not rust or corrode and tin is used for tin-plating "tin cans" for the same reason.
But why would these four elements stand out among the 66 elements between iron and uranium?
Lets look at the numbers we have thus far. We saw that 8 is a special number. 8 x 8 = 64. The median number of nucleons in the stable isotopes of copper is 64.
We saw that there was 22 new atoms added from the First Stage elements to the Second. There were already 4 atoms, the First Stage, and 22 more brings us to the heaviest Second Stage element, which is the iron at the end of the ordinary fusion process. Even though the Second Stage involved 23 new elements it was only 22 new atoms because there were 4 different atoms in the First Stage, even though only 3 elements, because the original atoms included 2 isotopes of hydrogen.
If we multiply the 3 original elements by the 22 new atoms, we get 66. This is the median number of nucleons in the several stable isotopes of zinc. Interestingly, 64 nucleons is the median of the stable isotopes of copper but an atomic mass or atomic weight, which refers to the number of nucleons, is actually the most common isotope of zinc, rather than of copper.
We have seen how both 17, the indivisible prime number in the very divisible relationship between the mass of a proton and the mass of an electron, and 7, both the rough number of "common atoms" in the universe and the number of Main Sequence star types, are special numbers. If we multiply 17 x 7, we get 119. This is the median number of nucleons of the isotopes of tin.
We have seen that 8 is a very special number with regard to atoms, both in the electron orbitals, the "Octet Rule" and in the nucleus, the element with 8 protons (oxygen) has the lowest nucleon to proton ratio of any element. 23 is also a special number because there are 23 elements in the Second Stage elements. If we multiply 23 x 8, we get 208, which is the number of nucleons in the most common isotope of lead.
I) COMPARISON OF THESE SPECIAL NUMBERS WITH THE MAGIC NUMBERS
It has long been known that there are certain "Magic Numbers" associated with the nuclei of atoms. If a nucleus has a "Magic Number" of either protons or neutrons then that nucleus can be expected to be especially stable, with more binding energy per nucleon, and thus preferred in the universe. If a nucleus has a "Magic Number" of both protons and neutrons, that is even better and is known as "Double Magic".
As we have seen, not all atoms that form are stable. Those that are not eventually release radiation or particles in order to attain a more stable state. This process is known as radioactivity.
There are seven known "Magic Numbers". These are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126.
Obviously the 126 applies only to numbers of neutrons because there is no atom with 126 protons. The heaviest naturally-occurring element is uranium, with 92 protons.
The Magic Numbers are about stability, while my Special Numbers here are about limits. Why does the ordinary stellar fusion process only go as far as iron? Why does the fusion process that occurs only in a supernova only go as far as uranium? If more different atoms would have formed at the beginning of the universe, by primordial nucleo-synthesis, there would be more different elements today.
These two sets of numbers are complementary, explaining the nature of the atoms in the universe. I would like to add my Special Numbers to the Magic Numbers.
The differences between the two sets of numbers are that multiplication and addition are reversed. Like the atoms with regard to my Special Numbers, the Magic Numbers can be divided into three stages.
The First Stage, 2 and 8, are also common with the Special Numbers.
If we multiply both by the first number and then add them together, ( 2 x 2 ) + ( 8 x 2 ), we get 20, which is the next Magic Number.
20 begins the Second Stage of the Magic Numbers, and in this stage the successive numbers are built up by addition rather than by multiplication. 20 + 8 = 28, which is the next Magic Number. 28 + 20 + 2 = 50, which is the end of the Second Stage of the Magic Numbers. Notice that 8 is not added because it is already included in the 28.
82 begins the Third Stage of the Magic Numbers. In this stage, we go back to multiplication, combined with addition, to get the number from the previous numbers. But multiplication in the Magic Numbers, in contrast with the Special Numbers, is only ever done by 2.
50 + 28 + ( 2 x 2 ) = 82
The final Magic Number is 126. 50 + 20 + ( 28 x 2 ) = 126.
(Note-Interestingly, the highest number that is multiplied by 2 in the Magic Numbers is 28. This gives a product of 56, which is so important to the Special Numbers as it is the number of nucleons in iron, which is the final Second Stage element).
Something else interesting is that the number 8 is common to both the Magic and Special Numbers. It is also very important in chemistry, as with the Octet Rule and that the 8 is the most electrons that any atom can have in it's outermost orbital shell. But yet, as we see by the Special Numbers, the number 8 does not originate from atoms themselves. It must originate from somewhere else. This supports my cosmology theory because it has matter being scattered over 4 dimensions of space and there are two opposite directions in each dimension, for a total of 8.
Another thing that is noteworthy is that the planets of the Solar System, the distances between which we can see came from the information in the iron atom, can also be divided into three stages. There are the inner planets, out to Mars, then the Asteroid Belt, then the outer planets.
The Special Numbers, in contrast with the Magic Numbers, start with addition and then compound by multiplication. The first atoms must have been hydrogen, the lightest and simplest atom. Some of these were added together, by primordial nucleo-synthesis, to create the four different original atoms, which are the First Stage atoms. But from there, to form the Second and Third Stage atoms, there is no more addition, it is all my multiplication as we see above.
Another difference between the Magic and the Special Numbers is that the Magic Numbers are all even numbers. It is known that atoms with even numbers of either protons or neutrons tend to be more stable than those with odd numbers.
The Magic Numbers 50 and 82 correspond to the elements tin and lead, which we saw are common considering that they are Third Stage atoms. But these Magic Numbers are the number of protons in these two elements while my Special Numbers also confer stability on tin and lead but by the total number of nucleons.
J) THE LOWEST INFORMATION POINT
Now, let's go back to my concept of the Lowest Information Point. Notice how the universe, in fusing lighter atoms together into heavier atoms, works with numbers that are already there and the products of those numbers. The Lowest Information Point is replicating numbers that are already present, just as A / B = B / C is a lower information state than A / B = C / D, because that involves the introduction of an additional information point.
The elements do compound from the lowest to the highest, starting with 1 and 2, and we should expect that generally lighter elements will be more common than heavier ones because mass is equivalent to energy, in accord with the well-known mass-energy equivalence, because the universe always seeks the lowest energy state.
In this scenario, we see that electrons are not separate from the activity in the nucleus because neutrons are created by crunching electrons into protons. This is how the mass ratio between an electron and a proton became involved in the Special Numbers.
The two elements at the end of each stage, or fusion type, which are iron and uranium, tend to be more common than they would be otherwise. Iron is so common in the inner Solar System because it is as far as the ordinary fusion process (the S-process) goes. Uranium is likewise more common than it would be otherwise because it is the final Third Stage element, the heaviest naturally-occurring element and as far as the supernova fusion process (the R-process) goes.
I find that these simple arithmetical relationships that define atoms and stars, that I cannot see pointed out anywhere, to be absolutely amazing and has the potential to reveal much more about how the universe works. This theory of the Lowest Information Point reveals these Special Numbers to add to the already familiar factor tree of the elements and the "Magic Numbers" to explain why the limits of atoms are what they are and the relative abundances of elements in the universe.
Remember, once again, that all around you, every day, there are simple things that no one has ever before pointed out. I was led to these Special Numbers because it caught my attention that there were 4 different original atoms, with a total of 14 nucleons. 4 x 14 = 56, and 56 is the number of nucleons in an iron atom which is as far as the ordinary fusion process in stars goes. I decided to look further to see if there were any more such simple arithmetical relationships that might define atoms.
K) SUMMARY OF SPECIAL NUMBERS
The "Magic Numbers" are known already. These are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126. The Magic Numbers apply to both the number of protons and the number of neutrons in a nucleus. Atoms with both the number of neutrons and the number of protons being one of these numbers are known as "Double Magic".
What I want to do is to add my Special Numbers to the Magic Numbers. The Magic Numbers are about the stability of nuclei while the Special Numbers are about the limits on each of the three stages of atoms. It shows that information cannot just be made up but numbers must be reused at each stage.
The original atoms were hydrogen, with only one proton and one electron. But enough energy was released in the Big Bang to fuse most of the hydrogen into heavier atoms. The early universe ended up with 4 different atoms with 14 total nucleons. These were the First Stage Atoms. Many of these atoms ended up being fused together into heavier atoms in stars and this formed the Second Stage Atoms. The heaviest of the Second Stage Atoms is iron. It has a total of 56 nucleons because 4 x 14 = 56.
There is a rare but stable isotope of helium with only one neutron, known as helium 3. This is not included in the 4 above because nature seems to consider it as an incomplete helium atom. But there are 17 total nucleons in the First Stage Atoms if we do include it. A proton is 1,836 times the mass of an electron and this is a very divisible number. We can divide it by 3 three times and then by 2 twice until we get to a prime number that can't be further divided. That number is 17.
The First Stage Atoms have 4 atoms but only 3 elements because there are two isotopes of hydrogen. Iron, the heaviest element of the Second Stage, has 26 protons. This means that 23 new elements are formed for the Second Stage. 14 x 23 = 322. This is the total number of nucleons in the heaviest stable isotope of all elements up to 17, which is chlorine.
Third Stage Atoms are formed only during the tremendous energy release when a large star explodes as a supernova. 14 x 17 = 238. This is the number of nucleons in the heaviest of these atoms, which is uranium. There were 4 atoms in the First Stage, although only 3 elements, and 23 in the Second Stage. 4 x 23 = 92 and this is the number of protons in uranium.
You can see how numbers must get reused. These are the Nucleon Roots. There are also the Proton Roots. The Proton Roots come about because the 4 atoms are not created equal with regard to fusion. The two heaviest of the original 4 atoms, excluding the two isotopes of hydrogen, are more likely to be pulled into fusion by gravity. These have 11 nucleons, rather than the 14. Also the heaviest isotope of hydrogen is more likely to be pulled into fusion than the lighter one. This gives us the Proton Roots of 11, 2 and, 3 while the Nucleon Roots are 4 and 14.
11 x 23 = 253. This is the total number of stable nuclides in all atoms.
Just as the First Stage is 4 atoms but 3 elements, because of 2 isotopes of hydrogen, so the number of Second Stage Atoms sometimes shows up as 22, rather than 23. This is because the fourth element, beryllium, does not form stably in stars. The beryllium that we do have is believed to have formed by cosmic ray spallation. This is a type of natural fission where heavier elements are broken down by cosmic rays.
This means that 11 x 2 = 22 gives us the number of Second Stage Atoms. 22 x 3 = 66 then gives us the number of Third Stage Atoms, past iron up to uranium.
8 is a Special Number, as described above. It is also a Magic Number. Third Stage Atoms are usually rare. There are only 4 that are fairly common. This is explained by the Magic Numbers but can also be explained by these Special Numbers.
8 x 8 = 64, the number of nucleons in copper.
3 x 22 = 66, not only the number of Third Stage Atoms but also the number of nucleons in zinc.
56 / 8 = 7 and 17 x 7 = 119, the number of nucleons in tin.
23 x 8 = 208, the number of nucleons in lead.
