On this anniversary of the blog remember that what I try to write here is not just knowledge but new knowledge, things that have never been pointed out before. I usually won't write something here unless it is new, or at least a new way of looking at things. I don't absolutely guarantee that everything I write here is new but it is as far as I know.
A significant portion of what I write here is about science. Here are 106 new things that I claim to have found about science. I have tried to put entries with similar subject matter together. It only just touches on the five major theories. Nine of the entries are illustrated by diagrams. Remember that all around you, every day, there are things that no one has ever pointed out. If anyone can be an influencer or a social media then why can't anyone be a scientist?
1) Gems that refract light, such as diamonds and rubies, are only found up to a very limited size, but I have never seen an explanation why. The reason is that these gems are made of atoms and are formed by geological processes. For a material to be clear or to refract light the atoms must be lined up in rows so that the light can pass through them. These gems are formed by geological processes and this means that the gems must be closer in scale to the atoms than to the earth. It is not possible for natural gems that refract light to form by geological processes at a size closer in scale to the earth than to it's component atoms.
2) Biology is just as much a science as chemistry and physics, but usually contains much less mathematics than the physical sciences. The reason is not that biology cannot be described with numbers but that our one line numbers, our 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., while fine for describing inanimate matter, cannot adequately describe the more complex biology. A number system that can describe biology would be "complex numbers", as opposed to our "simple numbers". Numbers would have to be two-dimensional and we should be able to express mathematical constants, such as pi, with a finite number of digits. One difference with "complex numbers" is that "and" and "plus" are not necessarily the same thing, and two numbers could be equal without being the same thing, whereas that is not true with our "simple numbers". That is why, relative to chemistry and physics, we tend to describe biology with words rather than numbers.
3) Generations of algebra students have wondered what on earth they will ever us the concept of "i", the square root of -1, for when they get out in the real world. The "i" stands for "imaginary" because negative numbers cannot have square roots, since two negative numbers multiplied equals a positive number. But yet the students have to learn it to pass the class. Believe it or not this actually makes perfect sense and is very useful. But a mistake has been made. It shouldn't be defined as the square root of -1, which doesn't make sense. Rather it should be defined as "Perpendicular 1". As described in the section above our one-dimensional line of numbers is not entirely sufficient to describe the world around us. This would give us a two-dimensional number system. The concept of "i" is onto the right idea but it should be about "Perpendicular 1", instead of -1.
4) The so-called "Galileo's Paradox" is that every number must have a perfect square, which is the number multiplied by itself, but few numbers are perfect squares of other numbers. This must mean that numbers go on to infinity because if numbers were finite then every number would have to be a perfect square. But I find this to be explained by Newton's Law of Inverse Squares. The numbers that are less than a given number must have their perfect squares within the perfect square of the given number. 100 is the perfect square of 10 so that all numbers from 1-10 have their perfect square within 100. As we move higher in numbers, perfect squares become more sparse according to the Inverse Square Law. 36 doubled is 72. There are six perfect squares within 36 so there should be the square root of 6, which is 2.45, between 37 and 72. There are two perfect squares from 37 to 72, which are 49 and 64, and 72 is nearly halfway from 64 to the next perfect square, which is 81.
5) There is a geometric postulate that I had not seen. There can be only one center of a geometric form with no vertices. A form that is dependent on another form cannot have a center. A sphere has a center but the surface of the sphere, which is dependent on the sphere, cannot have a center. The earth has a center but the surface of the earth does not have a center. A finite flat plane does have a center because it is not dependent on another form.
6) If we draw a right triangle, with line X as the horizontal axis and Y as the vertical axis, a line from the intersection is labeled R for radius. This gives us the very useful Trigonometric Functions, as there is a direct relationship between the angle of R and the relative lengths of X and Y. If R is at a 45 degree angle then X and Y will be equal and the length of R will be the square root of the lengths of X and Y added together. The sine of the angle is defined as Y/R, the cosine as X/R, and the tangent as Y/X. The following two diagrams show two ways that it can be drawn.
There is also the three lesser-used inverse functions, that are the inverses of these ratios. Three of the names of the six functions begins with co-. This means that the function decreases as the angle increases.
But these trigonometric functions are based on a 90 degree angle. What I see as useful is a function based on a 45 degree angle. If we multiply the sine of an angle by it's cosine it will start at zero, peak at .5 at 45 degrees, and then go back to zero at 90 degrees. For convenience we can multiply the product by 2, so that it peaks at 1.
This 45 degree function has many useful applications. The range of a cannon is described by it, with the maximum range when the cannon is aimed at 45 degrees. It also describes how much distance is saved by taking a diagonal shortcut, as opposed to going around along a right angle path. In fact I notice that a lot of problems involving a peak, typically solved using calculus, can actually be solved by this 45 degree function.
7) Just as the distance across a rectangle involves the 45 degree function, the distance across a circle involves what I see as the very useful 180 degree function. We could call the usual 90 degree functions the Primary Functions and these 45 and 180 functions as the Secondary Functions. The 180 degree function starts at a point on a circle and proceeds in a straight line across the circle to another point on the circle. The distance that is thus saved by going across the circle, as opposed to going around it's circumference, starts at zero at our origin, peaks at 180 degrees which is the circle's diameter, and then goes back to zero at our origin. In the following diagram, A is the origin, AB is the diameter from the origin and AC is a 45 degree chord.
The distance from the origin to a point on the circle by a chord or diameter is the square root of the proportion of the half circle that is bypassed. At a 45 degree angle, as with AC above, we bypass half the way to the diameter, AB, so AC is the square root of half the diameter, or .707 times the diameter.
This 180 degree function operates alongside other geometry and trigonometry. The distance from A to C to B is 1.414, double the square root of one half, times the diameter, AB, and from A to B around the circumference is about 1.57, half of pi, times the diameter.
This 180 degree function could be called the Lunar Function. The phase of the moon can be described with it, but not with the traditional 90 degree functions. In the following diagram, N represents where the moon would be if it was new moon and F if it was full moon. The phase of the moon is the length of Line A relative to Line B. It peaks at full moon and then goes back to zero at new moon.
This 180 degree function can also be useful to describe planets in their orbits. Even though the planets move in elliptical, rather than circular, orbits, they appear to move in circles and this can, if necessary, be modified for the ellipse.
8) In 1998 two separate teams researched the rate at which the expansion of the universe is slowing down. Amazingly, both teams found that not only is the expansion of the universe, outward from the Big Bang, not only not slowing down, it is actually speeding up. So-called "dark energy" was contrived to explain how this could possibly be happening. Like "dark matter" we cannot detect "dark energy". But I find the acceleration of the expansion of the universe rather simple to explain. It is caused by the fusion of atoms in stars and can be explained in terms of information. Suppose that we have six identical bits that can fit into twelve empty spaces, this gives us 4,096 possible permutations. The bits are interchangeable because they are identical. Now suppose the bits undergo fusion, just like atoms in stars. The six individual bits are fused into one-bit, two-bit and, three-bit. Even though the bits are no longer interchangeable this fusion means a loss of information as there is now only 3,960 possible permutations. The bits, of course, represent atoms being fused in stars. But information in the universe cannot just be lost like this by internal processes. The only way to avoid losing information by fusion is for the number of spaces to increase, in other words for the universe to expand. The reason the expansion is speeding up is that, over time, successively heavier elements are being fused together so that more energy per time is being released.
9) Explaining this expansion of the universe in terms of energy is also simple. When smaller atoms are fused into larger atoms the new larger atoms contain less overall energy than the smaller atoms that were fused together, this excess energy is released as radiation and is why stars shine. In my cosmology theory energy ultimately goes to overcome the basic rules of the electric charges that comprise everything in the universe. When energy overcomes the mutual repulsion of like charges it produces the charged particles of matter, such as electrons. When energy overcomes the mutual attraction of opposite charges it produces electromagnetic waves. These waves thus "loosen" the alternating checkerboard of the negative and positive charges in space, causing the space to "expand" as a result of the increasing amount of the radiation released by the fusion in stars. The "dark energy" driving the acceleration of the expansion of the universe is actually light, and other electromagnetic radiation. Matter and electromagnetic radiation is actually interchangeable but there is practically no radiation being transformed into matter because, when it does happen, it produces one particle of matter and one of antimatter and the two immediately mutually annihilate back into radiation.
10) What caught my attention is that three elements are associated with magnetism, iron, cobalt and, nickel, elements 26, 27 and, 28. These are also the elements at the top of the Binding Energy Curve. This means that they have the most tightly bound nuclei, the highest binding energy per nucleon of all elements. This is why the ordinary fusion process in stars only goes as far as iron. Most electrons in orbitals exist in pairs and magnetism is when the orbits of the unpaired electrons can be lined up. This apparently has nothing to do with the binding energy of the nucleus but I decided that this was unlikely to be a coincidence. I concluded that it was about information. The binding of the nucleus was actually a lower information state. But magnetism is information. The atom is a unit, bound by electric charge, even though the nucleus and the electron orbitals are separate parts of it, and the information of the magnetism prevents any information from being lost by the lower information in the binding state of the nucleus.
11) There must be a wind pressure formula. I had seen charts of the force exerted by wind of certain velocities, but had never seen a direct formula. I was going across a nearby bridge on a windy day. There were whitecaps on the waves. I knew that whitecaps form on waves when the wind reaches a velocity of 22 KPH. I remembered that standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch. The reason that whitecaps form with a wind of 22 KPH is that the pressure of the wind exerted at that velocity equals atmospheric pressure. The wind is then able to force the air into the waves that form whitecaps. After converting the units this gives us a formula for the pressure exerted by the wind. We must remember to square the force, or take the square root, because twice the velocity gives four times the force, and half the velocity gives a quarter the force.
12) To an observer on the moon the earth appears to go through phases just as does the moon to an observer on earth. I realized one day that the phase of the moon, as seen from the earth, and the phase of the earth, as seen from the moon, must always add up to a complete circle.
13) The moon does not actually orbit the earth. From the moon the gravity of the sun is more than twice as strong as the gravity of the earth. What happens is that the path of the moon interweaves with that of the earth while both move around the sun. Since the earth is 81 times the mass of the moon it seems that the moon is moving while the earth isn't. When the moon is between the earth and the sun, at new moon, the sun and earth are pulling against each other, causing the moon to move slower so that it falls behind the earth. When the moon is on the other side of the earth from the sun, at full moon, the sun and the earth are pulling together so that the moon moves faster and pulls ahead of the earth. This is what causes the moon to appear to orbit the earth. It did once orbit the earth because it was much closer to the earth than it is now, so that the earth's gravity was the strongest force on it, and the information of that orbit remains.
The following diagram shows how the earth and moon interweave as both orbit the sun. The blue line represents the earth and the red line the moon. The moon moves much more because it's mass is only 1 / 81 that of the earth. But the mass center of the two remains constant. F represents a full moon and N represents a new moon.
14) Salt, when added to water, both slows the rate at which the water evaporates and raises it's boiling point. That has tremendous implications for the earth's weather. What kind of wild weather would we have if the salt in the sea didn't slow the evaporation rate? Since salt is so closely associated with water, or where water has been, it must have arrived on earth with water, in one or more comets. Since there are salt mines and salt deserts, where water has been in the past, that means salt is being removed from the sea by geological processes. This means that the earth's weather must have been tamer in the past, with less water in the water cycle.
15) Drizzle is considered as a light rain. But drizzle and rain are actually two different things. Drizzle falls from stratus cloud while rain falls from cumulus cloud. Rain is heavier because cumulus cloud is vertically thicker.
16) Stratus cloud is primarily a function of water while cumulus cloud is primarily a function of land. The evenness of water is reflected in the even layers of stratus cloud. But there is variation in land, which causes it to heat unevenly. This causes updrafts from the warmer areas on land, which includes the asphalt and concrete of towns and cities, and downdrafts in between. The updrafts are what form cumulus clouds, typically early in the day. If the earth's surface was only water, with no land, there would likely be no cumulus cloud.
17) Liquid is a secondary state of matter. There is no such thing as liquid in open space. A liquid requires the support of a solid beneath it and the pressure of a gas above it. A liquid in open space would immediately turn into either a gas or a solid.
18) Only the largest stars explode in a supernova. We know that solar systems form around second-generation stars after the original star has exploded in a supernova. A supernova is the exploding of the star from the center. A nova, in contrast, is just the blasting off of the star's outer layers. I conclude that if planets in a solar system have atmospheres and oceans then the original star must have underwent at least one nova prior to it's supernova. If the star didn't undergo a nova then there would be solid planets without atmospheres or oceans. The much greater energy released by the supernova fuses small atoms together into larger ones, which is how all elements heavier than iron form, but the much lesser energy released by a nova fuses the light atoms in the star's outer area into the light molecules, such as water, that form atmospheres and oceans. I believe that there were likely three nova before the supernova that preceded the sun. The first formed the distant comets, the Oort Cloud. The second formed the nearer comets, the Kuiper Belt. The third formed the methane, ammonia and, water that make up much of the mass of the outer planets.
19) The orbits of comets around the sun are extremely elliptical. This is explained by the comets resulting from nova before the supernova, as described in the section above. The previous star, before exploding in the supernova, was much more massive than the sun so that the comets would have more orbital energy than they do now. When that star exploded in the supernova only part of the mass fell back together by gravity to form the sun. This meant the orbital energy of the comets had to decrease and this was accomplished by their orbits "shrinking" into the extreme ellipses that we see today.
20) The orbits of the comets are not in the same plane at all as the planets but their inclination to the orbital plane of the planets never exceeds about 45 degrees. This is explained by the explosion of the previous star in a supernova. The comets were orbiting the star, in all different planes, when the star exploded as a supernova. The star was rotating as it exploded and this meant it's equatorial region also had centrifugal force to add to the force of the explosion, while the polar regions didn't. This then meant it was the mass of the polar regions that fell back together to form the much-smaller sun, while the mass of the equatorial region continued on into space and swept away the comets in it's path. Since it was the mass of the polar regions that formed the sun, the rotational plane of the sun and the orbital plane of the planets is perpendicular to what was the rotational plane of the former star. This is why the orbital planes of the comets don't vary by more than about 45 degrees from the orbital plane of the planets.
In the following diagram the red arrows represent the equatorial plane of the previous star that exploded in a supernova. The matter thrown outward from this region never came back together because it had the added outward momentum of the centrifugal force of rotation. The blue dashes are comets that formed from the light molecules thrown outward by a nova that preceded the supernova. The comets in the star's equatorial region were swept away by the matter from the supernova. The green arrows represent the matter from the polar regions of the previous star. It did come back together by gravity to form the sun and Solar System and the comets in that zone remain. This is why the orbital plane of the planets is perpendicular to the equatorial plane of the previous star and comets have orbital inclinations up to about 45 degrees from that plane.
21) So-called "rare earth" elements are not actually rare, they are just difficult to mine. What is interesting is that they are found together on earth and this tells us a lot about what goes on inside of a star before it explodes in a supernova. The Rare Earths are elements 57-70 and also 21 and 39. What caught my attention is that 21 to 39 is 18 and 39 to 57 is also 18, and 18 is a very divisible number. We know that stars continuously fuse lighter atoms together into heavier atoms. As a general rule, lighter elements are more common than heavier but this is nowhere near a strict rule because atoms are fused together in a kind of factor tree. What I decided happens is that atoms of elements 6-10, which we could call the "Common Non-Metals" are mixed together by the beginning of the supernova explosion, before being fused together. These elements are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and, neon. Probably including iron atoms, which is as far as the ordinary fusion process goes, this is what forms the Rare Earths and why they are found together.
22) How can there be meteor showers at the same time every year, as the earth in it's orbit passes through dust left behind by comets? It must mean that the dust particles don't orbit the sun like the earth does but they do orbit the center of the galaxy along with the whole Solar System. This shows that there were nova, a blasting off of the outer layers of the star that preceded the sun before it exploded in a supernova. The sun and planets formed as some of the matter from the exploded star fell back together by gravity. The planets orbit the sun because they were formed together but the dust just continues to orbit the center of the galaxy because the comets existed before the supernova. The orbits of the comets, or the dust that comes from them, cannot be changed by an internal rearrangement of the mass of the star from which they came, which is what the present sun and Solar System is.
23) The planets are at unevenly spaced distances from the sun. There is a formula, Bode's Law, that fairly accurately predicts the distances. But even so the distances to the planets is information that must have come from somewhere. A solar system forms when a large star explodes in a supernova. Only the largest stars will explode in a supernova. The ordinary fusion process only goes as far as iron. Elements heavier than iron are rare because they are only formed during the brief time that the supernova is actually occurring, because atoms are fused together that otherwise wouldn't be by the tremendous release of energy. This is why iron is so common in the inner Solar System. Iron is the most abundant element on earth by mass. The information in iron, and atoms in general, is what has defined the distances to the planets. There are two types of nucleons, protons and neutrons, each of which are made up of three quarks. Smaller atoms are crunched by fusion into larger atoms, which forms a factor tree and explains why some elements are more common than others. An ordinary iron atom has 56 nucleons of which 26 are protons. The most obvious factor difference between 26 and 56 is that 26 = (4x4) + (1x10) while 56 = (4x4) + (4x10). So let's start with 0 to represent empty space, 3 quarks in each nucleon and 2 different types of nucleons. If we start with the 0 and 3, and multiply the 3 by successive multiples of 2 we get, 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192. We still have the 4 and 10 as the factors described above. If we add 4 to each number we get, 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100, 196. We can then divide by 10 to get, .4, .7, 1, 1.6, 2.8, 5.2, 10, 19.6. This models the relative distances to the planets very well. Just by chance the 1 represents the relative distance of the earth. The 2.8 represents the asteroid belt. The only planet that is a little bit out of place is Neptune.
24) What I refer to as the "Weather Cycle" could be a very useful tool for forecasting the weather. Every factor involved in the weather is cyclical, the rotation of the earth, the seasonal changes in temperature, the evaporation of water and it's falling as precipitation. This means that unless we are dealing with an infinite amount of information, which we aren't, the weather must eventually repeat itself. The only linear factor, non-cyclical, is human-caused climate change and changing of the earth's surface. If we could identify, from weather records, when the Weather Cycle began repeating itself we could use the records to forecast the weather. An analogy is a system of intermeshed gears, with a handle to turn one of the gears. If we marked with a pencil where each pair of intermeshed gears were in contact at the beginning, and then turned the handle long enough, a finite system of gears would eventually line up at their starting positions.
25) My definition of a black hole is when the gravitational pressure exceeds the Mass-Energy Equivalence of the mass. A mass of matter, such as a star, will compress under it's own gravity. A star is born when this gravitational pressure exceeds the electron repulsion between atoms, so that smaller atoms are crunched together into larger ones. The new larger atom has less overall internal energy than the ones that were crunched together to form it. The excess energy is released as radiation and this is why stars shine. This internal energy of all matter is known as the Mass-Energy Equivalence. It is the basis of Einstein's famous formula, E = MC squared, that a given amount of mass is equivalent to a certain amount of energy. My cosmology theory defines this internal energy as the energy that holds the like electric charges of matter together against their mutual repulsion. This is why matter is composed of charged particles, such as electrons. Everything in the universe, matter and space, is composed of negative and positive electric charges. Opposite charges attract and like charges repel. But energy can hold like charges together to form matter, this is the internal energy of matter that gives it it's mass. Space is a checkerboard of opposite charges and so does not have this internal energy. A black hole forms when the gravitational pressure exceeds this Mass-Energy Equivalence.
26) Moles and coulombs could have been coordinated but they aren't. A mole is a fixed number, as long as we measure mass in grams. A mole is defined as the number of atoms or molecules in a pure sample of an element or compound that has a mass of the number of grams of it's atomic or molecular mass. 56 grams of iron with an atomic weight (or mass) of 56 would contain one mole of iron atoms. A mole is 6.02 raised to the 23rd power. A coulomb, in contrast, is an arbitrary unit. It is a number of electrons. A coulomb is the unit of electric charge and the flow of one coulomb of electrons per second is defined as one ampere. But electrons come from atoms and atoms are counted in moles. A coulomb is relatively close to one ten-thousandth of a mole. It would have been very useful to coordinate the two so that a coulomb is one ten-thousandth of a mole, by adjusting the definition of a coulomb. The probable reason this didn't happen is that coulombs came first.
27) Another thing that we missed coordinating is the length of a meter with the rate of acceleration due to gravity, which is 9.8 meters per second squared. If a meter, which is an entirely arbitrary unit, had been made just a little bit shorter then the acceleration due to gravity would have been 10 meters per second squared, which would have been very convenient and would have fit perfectly with the Metric System being based on multiples of 10. But the Metric System is a product of the French Revolution, which happened long before aircraft and tall buildings became common. If a measurement system like the Metric System was being developed now I am sure it would be designed to incorporate the acceleration due to gravity.
28) There are some "natural" units of measurement. The most obvious are days and years, for time. If we measure time in seconds there is a natural unit of linear measurement, particularly vertical. I call it the "grav", for gravity. The acceleration due to gravity for a falling object is 9.8 meters per second squared, or 32 feet per second squared. That means a vertical distance of 16 feet, or 4.9 meters, would be very useful. To measure a height, just drop a weighty compact object and time how long it takes to reach the ground in seconds. Then square the number and that is the altitude in gravs. To find out how many seconds it will take the object to reach the ground in seconds, just measure the altitude in gravs and take the square root of it. This wasn't as important in the past but now we are in the era of aircraft and tall buildings.
29) It is unfortunate that the two electric charges were identified before the structure of atoms was understood. Electrons have a negative charge and the nucleus a positive charge. But the designation of negative and positive is entirely arbitrary and could just as easily have been the other way around, which it is for antimatter. Maybe the entire terminology is unfortunate because a minus also means to lose something and a plus to gain something. It turns out that this is the way electrons in atoms work but it would be better if an electron was defined as having a positive charge because, the way it is now, if an atom loses an electron it has a net positive charge and if it gains an electron it has a net negative charge, and the way it sounds doesn't make sense.
30) Polar molecules, such as water where one side is more negatively-charged and the other more positively-charged, or diatomic molecules, which are two identical molecules bonded together often hydrogen or oxygen, are necessary for any kind of eddies, whirlpools or, turbulence to take place in a fluid, a liquid or a gas. If the fluid is made up of single atoms then such turbulent effects will not take place. These turbulent effects only take place in the air because the diatomic molecules in air are unequal in their length and width. The effects only take place in water because one side of the molecule is more positively-charged and the other more negatively-charged. All turbulence is a result of this molecular inequality.
31) Whenever some entity in the universe, with a given topology, induces some other entity the induced entity will have a topology that is opposite to the topology of the original entity. We know that dimensions of space form right angles because right angled forms are the only ones that fit together with no leftover space. Yet the default gravitational form of matter is the sphere, which is the form that is most unlike right angles. But it goes beyond that. The earth is a sphere and it's rotation can induce tornadoes. A tornado is shaped like half of a pseudosphere, which is the topological opposite of a sphere. The same can be said for the eddy that forms when water is draining from a sink. If we graphed the acceleration of a falling object due to gravity it would also form a pseudosphere.
The following diagram shows the earth at left as a sphere. A sphere has a continuous positive curvature. Any entity that it induces, such as a tornado, must have the opposite continuous negative curvature, at right.
32) We can never be sure that we all perceive colors in the same way because we cannot describe colors with words. Try describing your favorite color to a blind person. You can't, it's impossible, the words just do not exist. But this means that we can never be sure if we perceive colors in the same way. One person might see green the way another person sees red. The same goes for all sensory perception.
33) The basis of all communication with words is sensory inputs that cannot be described with words. People must have the common experience of these sensory inputs in order to communicate with words. I refer to these sensory inputs as the "Real Alphabet". An example is color. To communicate about color, it is necessary for both parties to have sensed it, as it cannot be described with words.
34) Red and blue blood and colors is not a coincidence. Color does not really exist outside of ourselves, it is just the way our eyes and brains interpret different wavelengths of visible light. At one end of the visible spectrum, the longer wavelength lower frequency end, is red, at the other end is blue. Blood is also either red or blue, it becomes red after being exposed to oxygen. I don't think that this is a coincidence. It means that the nature of our blood governs how we perceive colors.
35) We know that colors are just the way that our eyes and brains interpret different wavelengths of light, and do not really exist outside of ourselves. Brown exists even less than the other colors. The way our eyes work causes there to be "forbidden colors". Two of these are red-green and blue-yellow. We cannot see these color combinations because the same sensors in the eyes are used to see both colors. I believe that brown is what our brains interpret if our eyes look at a color combination that they can't process.
36) We see six fundamental colors-red, orange, yellow, green, blue and, violet. But why do we see six fundamental colors? It is information that must have come from somewhere. The acronym CHNOPS is used in biology class to represent the six elements that are very important to living things-carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and, sulfur. This is not a coincidence. The six elements act as points of information and is why we see six fundamental colors. It is also why there are six "kingdoms" into which all living things are classified. There are also six basic things that we measure-time, distance, mass, temperature, electricity and, luminosity. But this is just due to our perspective on the universe and our own complexity reflected back at us by our surroundings.
37) Plants are primarily green because it is the color, the least of which comes from the sky. When an object is a particular color that color is actually the light that the color is reflected away, rather than absorbed. Plants live by their leaves absorbing sunlight. Light of all colors comes from the sky but the sky is blue while the sun is yellow-orange-red. This means that green is the color, the least of which comes from the sky. So plants develop, by spacing of their chlorophyll molecules, to reflect away the green light so that it can absorb the more plentiful colors. This is why plants are green. There are some plants that are not green but these are smaller plants, adapted to live under a canopy of green trees and green grass so that they can absorb the green light that is reflected away.
38) Deep water appears blue because light is both refracted by, and absorbed by, water. The blue, short wavelength, end of the spectrum is refracted the most but absorbed last, relative to the longer wavelength red end of the spectrum. Blue is thus the color that gets refracted back to the surface. In underwater photos, you may notice that you never see anything red below about 9 meters (30 feet). That is because red gets absorbed first. But at Niagara Falls, the water appears green. That is because the fast current keeps some of the riverbed rock clear of sediment so that it reflects some light back to the surface. This favors green because it is refracted enough to be at the right angle to be reflected back and lasts long enough without being absorbed by the water.
39) The real reason for the demise of the dinosaurs is what I refer to as the "Bone To Flesh Ratio". When a living thing with bones dies the flesh decays, and it's atoms return to circulation in the biosphere, much faster than the bones. Very old bones and skeletons are often found, without a trace of flesh left. This means that the ratio of atoms that compose flesh in the biosphere is always increasing relative to the atoms that compose bones. Larger creatures require more bone mass, relative to flesh. This means that land creatures based on bones must get smaller as time goes on. Whales exist because the rules of the sea are different. Water dissolves limestone, which contains calcium. But whales are mammals that breathe air. Their larger size gives them a lower surface-to-volume ratio and they couldn't survive as fish, breathing through gills, since oxygen is scarcer underwater than in the air.
40) Pterosaurs were flying dinosaurs in the distant past. We can see that they must have existed because they must have been responsible for plant life on remote islands. There are islands thousands of km away from any land that have a wide variety of luxuriant plant life. How else could the plants have gotten there? Flying dinosaurs must have lived on plants and been able to fly for very long distances. While flying over the ocean they would stop on an island for a rest. The seeds of the plants that they had eaten would pass through their digestive system and end up on the island. They might have flown over the ocean and sought out islands to avoid predator land-based dinosaurs.
41) Only living things with free will have a definable front and back, as well as a top and bottom. A natural rock has no definable top or bottom or front and back. A planet or star has a north and a south pole but we cannot really say that one is the top and one is the bottom. A hill or mountain has a top and bottom, but only by it's relation to the earth, not by it's own definition. But living things must have definable dimensions. A plant has a definable top and bottom but not a front and back. A living thing with free will must not only have a definable top and bottom but also a front and back.
42) We are of a higher complexity level than our surrounding inanimate environment. This means that we must labor in order to survive, since the surrounding environment will always be "trying" to pull us back down to it's level which is what happens at death. It also means that we require free will to make decisions because there is not enough surrounding complexity for all that we could conceive of to exist, which means that we can be wrong about things. If we were not of higher complexity than our surroundings we would never be wrong or able to conceive of something that did not exist. There is no such thing as a coincidence, it is just a random apparent reduction in our own complexity that we see reflected back at us by our surroundings.
43) The higher level of complexity of living things is manifested by the peak pattern. Living things have optimums, or peaks, where they are at their best. These peak factors include optimums of temperature, oxygen, food, sleep, etc. This optimum or peak pattern is not seen in inanimate matter. Another pattern only seen in living things is what I call "alphabet". A rock, as an example of inanimate matter, would make just as much sense wherever it is, on the earth or at the bottom of the sea or floating around in space. But a human foot would make no sense on it's own, not being part of the body.
44) In my information theory living things with consciousness, senses and, free will are at a higher level of complexity than their inanimate surroundings. This is why this is required and they can be wrong about things. There is not enough potential complexity in their surroundings for everything that they can conceive of to be true. Plants are alive but do not have consciousness because they are of the same complexity as the inanimate surroundings but are of greater intricacy, meaning more complexity per mass. This is why we require multiple plants for an optimal balanced diet, either directly or indirectly through meat. No single plant, no matter how nutritious, can provide a balanced diet.
45) We impose our higher level of complexity on our surrounding environment, which is why we can go wrong. Whenever we build or create technology we are imposing our higher level of complexity on our surroundings. That is why things can break or wear out, the surrounding environment is trying to pull them down to it's own level. We know that energy can never be created or destroyed but once we have used energy we cannot get it back in useful form because we are at a higher level of complexity. This applies to energy use by our bodies or by our technology.
46) Entropy is supposedly a well-established principle in science. Entropy basically says that nature will tend to break down the complex into the simple. A classic example of entropy that is often given is the placing of an open bottle of ink in an aquarium of water. The ink will tend to disperse into the water. The ink will not return into the bottle. This is considered as entropy. But I have never seen a meaningful example of entropy outside of living things, and things made by living things such as the ink and the aquarium. My conclusion is that there is no such thing as entropy in the universe of inanimate matter. Living things are at a higher level of complexity than their inanimate surroundings and when we make things we impose our own complexity on them. Entropy is the breaking of those things, and the bodies of living things, down to the level of inanimate matter.
47) All technology is of the same complexity that is equal to our own complexity that we impose on our surroundings. But some of the complexity of each example of technology is internal, and some is external. A cup looks like a simple piece of technology, much less complex than a car. But that is just the cup's internal complexity. To thoroughly understand the cup it would be necessary to understand human biology, why we would need to drink from the cup, how we would hold the cup, why the cup would hold a convenient amount of liquid, how we would get the material from which the cup is made and how we would manufacture the cup. All of this is external complexity.
48) I define complexity as the value of the denominator when an entity is expressed as a fraction or ratio. We know that humans are much more complex than our surrounding inanimate environment. Therefore there must be a number of how much more complex we are than the inanimate environment and we should see approximations of this number all around us. I call it the "Human Complexity Ratio". Places where we can see it approximated are: the number of human organs and body systems, the number of food items necessary for an optimal diet, the temperature range in which we are comfortable as a ratio of the total range on earth, the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see as visible light, the ratio of door and window to wall space in the average house, the number of functions of all the rooms in an average house, the number of basic education and knowledge categories, the number of labor categories, the number of sports categories.
49) The Lowest Information Point is always preferred by the universe. We know that energy and information is really the same thing because we cannot add information to anything without applying energy to it and cannot apply energy to anything without adding information to it. Another way we can see energy and information as really the same thing is how we can make our lives physically easier, by use of technology, but only at the expense of making them more complex. We can never, on a large scale, make our lives both physically easier and also less complex. We perceive energy and information to be separate things only because of our higher level of complexity.
50) The universe's seeking of the Lowest Information Point is often manifested in what I refer to as "related ratios". This means that the denominator in one ratio is the same as the numerator in the other. The universe would prefer A / B = B / C to A / B = C / D because the first equation contains only three pieces of information while the second contains four. One way that I think this shows up is that so much of the matter in the universe is in the form of dust. I call this the "Bias Toward Dust". A typical mote of dust is halfway between the scale of the nearly infinitesimal electric charges that comprise everything in the universe, Planck's Length, and the scale of the entire universe. Another way I think it shows up is in metals. Metals are where large numbers of atoms share their outermost electrons. One of these metallic crystals is, like a mote of dust, about halfway between the scale of an electric charge and the scale of the entire universe. There is much more to it than this.
51) The "Magic Numbers", of either protons or total nucleons, that confer stability on a nucleus are already known. There are also my "Special Numbers" that are about limits. The Special Numbers come about because reusing numbers, in the development of elements, achieved the Lowest Information Point, as described in the above section. The original atoms were hydrogen, with one proton and one electron. But enough energy was released in the Big Bang to fuse some of the hydrogen atoms into heavier elements. This is known as primordial nucleosynthesis. There were 4 different atoms, including two isotopes of hydrogen, with 14 total nucleons. These could be called the First Stage Atoms. Some of these were fused in stars up to iron, which is as far as the ordinary fusion process goes. Iron ordinarily has 56 nucleons, because 4 x 14 = 56. These could be called the Second Stage Atoms. The tremendous amount of energy released in a supernova fuses together elements heavier than iron. There are 23 new elements in the Second Stage Atoms, because the original 4 included two isotopes of hydrogen. 4 x 23 = 92, which is the number of protons in uranium as the heaviest naturally occurring element in the Third Stage. A proton is 1,836 times the mass of an electron. That is a very divisible number. We can divide it by 3 three times and then by 2 twice until we get 17, which is a prime number. If we multiply 14, the number of original nucleons, by 17 we get 238, which is the number of nucleons in what is by far the most common isotope of uranium. You can see how numbers are reused, because this is the lowest information state. This is just an introduction, there is more to it than this.
52) Spheres, orbits and, rotation exist for the universe to avoid making choices. The universe always seeks the Lowest Information Point just as it always seeks the lowest energy state, because energy and information is really the same thing. The simplest geometric form, of more than one dimension, would seem to be a flat plane. But, if there are more than two dimensions of space, an alignment would have to be chosen for the plane, and that alignment would be information. What a sphere really is can be defined as a flat plane in all possible directions. This is why the sphere is the default gravitational form, for such as stars and planets, it avoids having to choose an alignment. Suppose that the earth had a particular alignment, relative to the sun, such as the sun always being at it's 4 PM position where you live. The choice of that position would be information. In order to seek the lowest information position the earth rotates so that it cycles through all possible positions, relative to the sun. This avoids having to make the choice. The earth revolves around the sun for the same reason, to avoid the universe having to make a choice of one position in it's orbit. This achieves the lowest information state.
53) Infinity is actually the lowest information state, with zero as the denominator. My information theory defines infinity as a ratio with zero as the denominator. Since the level of complexity of a number is defined as the value of the denominator when the number is expressed as a fraction or ratio, infinity actually has a complexity of zero. Infinity is not really a number and so escapes complexity because it avoids having to make the choice of a number. It just keeps going on forever, through all numbers.
54) Infinity is preferred with charge balance, zero with energy state. The universe is composed of positive and negative electric charges, and would prefer an infinite number of each. This is because infinity is not really a number, and so an infinite number does not require the information of making the choice of a number. An infinite number of something is actually the lowest information state. This also goes for the number of dimensions of space in the universe. I believe that there are likely an infinite number, although we are confined to four of those dimensions including the one that we perceive as time. If there can be three dimensions then why can't there be four? If there can be four dimensions then why can't there be five, and so on? Infinity actually involves the least information because it is not really making the choice of a number.
55) We tend to ignore that, because the orbits of planets are ellipses, they move more slowly in their orbits around the sun when they are further from the sun. Kepler's Law is that a line from the center of the planet to the center of the sun sweeps over equal areas of space in equal periods of time, meaning that the planet must move faster when it is closer to the sun. This explains the two week gap between the solstices and perihelion and aphelion which would be a lower information state, and thus apparently preferred, if they occurred at the same time. What is happening is that the daily change in the earth's axial tilt is constant throughout the year but the journey between perihelion and aphelion is not constant, because the earth is moving more slowly when it is further from the sun. The solstices are around December 21 and June 21, perihelion is January 4 and aphelion is July 4.
56) Another implication of a planet moving more slowly when it is further from the sun is it's average distance from the sun. Textbooks give the simple average of the distances of perihelion and aphelion. But, since the planet moves more slowly when further from the sun, if we took it's distance from the sun on each day, and averaged the distances, we would get a distance that is greater than the simple average.
57) Physicists usually agree that everything is really numbers being manifested. This means that somehow everything that we are, and all that we do, must be expressible in numbers. But we can only express with numbers what our minds can grasp. Since our minds are of finite complexity there are things that we cannot express in numbers. This is what I refer to as "outer mathematics". We cannot get to human formula describing ourselves because we would have to be "smarter than ourselves", which is impossible. The stars in the sky appear in a completely random pattern but somewhere out there is a formula that describes the position of every star that we see.
58) We do not have an unbiased view of the universe, and this explains so much about the cosmology of the universe. A basic presumption of science is that we have an unbiased view of the universe, that we can completely rely on what our measurements and observations tell us. But what if we don't? My cosmology theory is based on the concept that we do not have an unbiased view of the universe. We see the universe as we do not only because of what it is but also because of what we are. With other sciences, like chemistry and geology, this doesn't make a difference. But with cosmology it does make a difference. It explains so much that cannot be otherwise explained, such as Special Relativity and Quantum Physics, that cannot be explained by ordinary physics and also contradict each other. We are seeing our own nature being reflected back at us. We were mistaken to think that we have an unbiased view of universe, and so much that is otherwise unexplainable falls into place once we understand that.
59) Relativity and Quantum Physics are two relatively new branches of physics. Both are based on concepts that cannot be explained by ordinary "textbook" physics. Furthermore, Relativity and Quantum Physics are incompatible with each other. In Relativity the speed of light is absolutely sacrosanct and mass, time and distance all revolve around it. But in Quantum Physics the speed of light is not even a factor at all. It can be demonstrated that information moves instantaneously between two entangled photons, no matter how far apart they are. The only way to explain this is ourselves, that we do not have an unbiased view of the universe. We see the "speed of light" as sacrosanct because it is the speed at which our consciousness moves along the bundles of strings comprising our bodies and brains, in four-dimensional space. We perceive quantum physics because light consists of a two-dimensional wave and electrons are one-dimensional strings. The only way that we can receive information by electromagnetic radiation is for the electrons in atoms in our eyes to absorb one dimension of a wave. That's why it makes a difference if a quantum event is observed or not. The remaining dimension of the wave is what we refer to as a photon. There is thus the "with us" universe, which includes Special Relativity and also Quantum Physics, and the "without us" universe, which is only ordinary "textbook" physics. This explains why Special Relativity and Quantum Physics is not explainable by ordinary physics. This is a primary example of us not having an unbiased view of the universe.
60) In Quantum Physics light appears to have both wave and particle natures. But that is because of what we are and explains why the act of observing an interaction is so important in Quantum Physics, an interaction can turn out differently according to whether or not it is observed. Light consists of two-dimensional waves in space that consists of alternating negative and positive electric charges. The only way that we receive light is by getting it's energy to knock an electron out of it's atomic orbital, whether in our eyes or our equipment. Electrons are, in my cosmology theory, one-dimensional strings. This means that, upon interaction, the electron string absorbs one of the two dimensions of the light wave. This leaves the other dimension as a particle, like an electron. This is why light is said to have both a wave and a particle nature and why it is so important or not whether the interaction is being observed. If the interaction was not being observed or measured the two dimensions of the wave would still be intact. We can tell that light consists of two-dimensional waves because it pushes electrons. If we increase the brightness of the light, the amplitude, it pushes the electrons with more force but doesn't push any more electrons. If we shorten the wavelength, meaning that it has more energy, it pushes more electrons but doesn't push them with any more force.
61) This is why stars twinkle and flames flicker, but this does not occur with synthetic sources of light. Electromagnetic waves are two-dimensional waves in three-dimensional space. This means that each wave can be aligned at any angle, like the hands on a clock. This alignment is known as polarity. Light from a synthetic source tends to have the waves all aligned at the same angle, referred to as polarized. The twinkling of stars and flickering of flames is explained by cosmology. The electrons in the atoms in our eyes are strings that are likewise aligned in all different directions. The only way for us to receive information by electromagnetic radiation is for an electron string, in our eyes or equipment, to absorb one of the two dimensions of a wave. But for this to happen the string must have the same alignment as the wave. In natural sources of light, stars and flames, the light is not polarized and the polarity of the waves that we receive is continuously changing. Our eyes cannot tell if light is polarized but they can tell if the polarity is continuously changing. This is why stars twinkle and flames flicker. Light is partially polarized when it is reflected from a surface. This is why planets, in contrast to stars, shine with a steady light.
62) My cosmology theory is that the matter of our universe is scattered across four dimensions of space. We perceive one of these dimensions as time because what we perceive as particles of matter, such as electrons, are actually strings in four dimensions instead of particles in three dimensions. This is the fulfillment of string theory. Our consciousness is moving along the bundles of strings comprising our bodies and brains at what we perceive as the speed of light. When Jupiter eclipses Io, one of it's moons, the eclipse is very predictable. But if the earth is moving toward Jupiter, in it's orbit, the eclipse occurs about ten minutes early. If the earth is moving away from Jupiter it occurs about ten minutes late. This is because of the speed of light. But if we observe a distant galaxy different rules apply. The light is shifted toward the red end of the spectrum, longer wavelengths, if it is moving away from us and blueshifted if it is moving toward us. This is known as the Doppler Effect. The reason for the difference of rules is that time, as the movement of our consciousness, is a factor with the eclipse of Io but not with the moving galaxies. So the relative movement of the objects shows up as time with the eclipse but as distance (wavelength) with the galaxy.
63) The density of matter in space is extremely sparse. In the universe as a whole it is something like three hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. Within galaxies the density is maybe a million times that of the empty inter-galactic space. But this density is information and information must have come from somewhere. The universe as we see it is only one possibility among all that it might have been. This is an alternative to the two groups of quantum theories. One group is that the universe is in all possible quantum states but collapses into only one upon being observed. The other group is that all possible quantum states that we do not see must still exist somewhere, in other universes. My theory is that the empty space must be maintained for all that the matter in the universe might have been but wasn't. No other quantum theory takes account of the density of matter in space, but it must somehow be important to the nature of the universe. What is not but might have been is information, just as much as what is, and this information must somehow be preserved.
64) We would not recognize each other unless the brain was more complex than the body. We would be able to recognize another person, but not to effectively tell them apart.
65) Handedness, people tending to be either right- or left-handed, is caused by the brain being more complex than the body. The human body already has two defined dimensions, top and bottom and front and back. But side to side looks pretty much identical, at least from the outside. The additional complexity of the brain shows up in effectively adding a third defined dimension, as handedness, but which comes into play only when the brain tells the body to undertake some action using the hands. Humans also tend to favor one foot over the other. Plants have only one defined dimension, top and bottom, but we eat plants, either directly or indirectly through meat, and that extra dimension is why our internal digestive and circulatory organs have another defined dimension, side to side.
66) Energy always ultimately goes to overcome the basic rules of electric charges. In my cosmology theory the universe is made of near-infinitesimal negative and positive electric charges. The size of these charges is Planck's Length, which is why Planck's Length shows up in all manner of physics formula. The basic rules of the electric charges are that opposite charges attract while like charges repel. Empty space consists of a checkerboard of alternating negative and positive charges, in multiple dimensions. But energy can overcome these basic rules so that like charges can be held together, against their mutual repulsion, to form the charged particles that comprise matter. This gives matter internal energy that we refer to as the Mass-Energy Equivalence. This internal energy in matter is partially released during a nuclear reaction and totally released during a matter-antimatter reaction. The energy goes to creating electromagnetic radiation, which is what results when energy overcomes the attractive force between opposite charges. So matter is when energy overcomes the mutual repulsion of like charges and electromagnetic radiation is when energy overcomes the mutual attraction of opposite charges. Radiation appears to be electromagnetic because it disturbs the perfect balance of the electric charges in space. Dimensions of space are at 90 degree angles to each other because an electric charge can bond with multiple opposite charges, if those opposite charges are positioned at 90 degrees to each other.
67) There must be another basic force. The universe is supposedly governed by four basic forces. These are gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force and, the weak nuclear force. The strong nuclear force binds the nucleus together against electromagnetic repulsion and the weak nuclear force breaks large unstable nuclei down into a more stable state. The stronger a force is the shorter the distance over which it operates. The strong nuclear force is, as the name implies, by far the strongest force but operates over only very short distances within the nucleus. There is no energy in the basic forces but they guide energy. But what about the fantastic amount of energy released by a matter-antimatter reaction? The Mass-Energy Equivalence is released as energy and the electric charges that had been held together against their mutual like-charge repulsion go back into the alternating negative and positive charges of empty space. None of the basic forces can account for the energy released by a matter-antimatter reaction. There must be another basic force.
68) Electric charges make up everything in the universe. Empty space is a checkerboard of negative and positive charges, in multiple dimensions. Matter is like charges, held together against their mutual repulsion by energy. This energy makes up what we call the Mass-Energy Equivalence. Electromagnetic radiation is so called because it is a disturbance that exposes the underlying electromagnetism of space, where the charges usually balance out and so conceal the electromagnetism. My model of electric charges are of oblong bits of information, as illustrated by the following diagram and images. The difference between negative and positive charges is that they are at right angles to each other. The two fit together and this is why the dimensions of space form right angles. The charges can be set end-to-end but this takes energy and forms the strings that comprise matter in my cosmology theory. This is why we see matter as composed of charged particles, such as electrons, because we can only see in three of the four dimensions over which matter is scattered, the other dimension we perceive as time. The energy is the Mass-Energy Equivalence. The length of one of these charges is the almost-infinitesimal Planck's Length, which is why it appears in all manner of physics formula.
Electric charges are oblong bits of information. A negative charge is shown in red and a positive charge in blue. The difference between the two charges is the alignment. The two charges naturally fit together to form the dimensions of space. Strings of either negative or positive charges form matter, as shown by the dashed line. This is why matter consists of charged particles, such as electrons. But holding like charges together, against their mutual repulsion, takes energy and this is the energy that shows up as the Mass-Energy Equivalence.
Patterns of bricks show the difference between space and matter. In these images from Google Street View the alternating pattern in the first image shows how charges are arranged, at right angles, in empty space. This is why the dimensions of space form right angles. Electromagnetic radiation is so-called because it disturbs the underlying balance of the two charges. This is why dimensions of space are at right angles to each other.
The following image shows how electric charges are arranged in matter. Like charges, all aligned in the same direction, are held together, against their mutual repulsion, by the mortar that represents the Mass-Energy Equivalence. This is what forms the strings of matter in my cosmology theory.
It appears to us that both matter and electromagnetic radiation occupy three-dimensional space. But we can see that electromagnetic waves must be of a higher dimensional order than matter, two as opposed to one, because matter and electromagnetic radiation is interchangeable but matter has mass but the radiation doesn't. What is happening is that the mass of matter is being exchanged for the second dimension of the radiation, but the total displacement of the electric charges of space remains constant.
This actually explains black holes. A black hole is an extreme concentration of matter but we know that black holes give off radiation, known as Hawking Radiation, and ultimately evaporate. The extreme pressure inside a black hole is enough to move individual electric charges around, or even to change the alignment of individual charges so that negative becomes positive and vice versa. The energy of the Mass-Energy Equivalence, that was holding like charges together to form matter, is then released as the radiation and the electric charges rearrange back into the alternating charge pattern of empty space.
69) "Gravitational Waves" are misnamed, they have nothing to do with gravity. These waves are caused by the collision of two extremely dense objects. It isn't about how massive they are, but how dense. It doesn't apply to objects made of atoms, even the largest stars, because atoms are mostly empty space. So gravity doesn't have anything to do with it. What happens is that the basic fabric of space, the alternating negative and positive charges, is torn by the collision. Space immediately reforms but the disturbance in space creates what we receive as the wave. This is not the same thing as ordinary electromagnetic waves, where the underlying balance of electric charges is disturbed, but the fabric of space is not torn.
70) By far the greatest explosions in the universe today are Gamma Ray Bursts. They can be observed across the universe and an average of about one per day occurs somewhere in the universe. It is not known what causes Gamma Ray Bursts. They are associated with cataclysmic events, such as supernova and the collisions of massive objects. But the energy released by the Gamma Ray Bursts is typically hundreds of times that released by the event itself. I find that Gamma Ray Bursts resemble great reactions between matter and antimatter, and that gives us a clue as to what they are. In my cosmology theory, the matter in atoms is composed of strings in four-dimensional space. We perceive them as particles, such as electrons, because we experience one of the dimensions as time. A cataclysmic event can break some of these strings. This causes a charge imbalance in the space around the break. The charges of space rearrange around each break and this effectively creates matter and antimatter. When the two react together, a fantastic burst of energy is released. This happens independently, in every break location, which is why the Gamma Ray Burst may last several hours. Each Gamma Ray Burst has it's own dynamics. This is unlike the "Gravity Waves", described in the section above, in that Gamma Ray Bursts only occur with matter made of atoms, or where the strings are still intact, and break these strings instead of tearing the fabric of space.
71) Negative numbers do not really exist. We are shown in school a number line, starting at zero and with positive numbers in one direction and negative numbers in the other. But negative numbers only exist in things created by humans, particularly debt. Negative temperatures are only because of where we start temperature scales from. If we measured temperature from Absolute Zero, the coldest possible temperature, there would be no negative temperatures. The fact that we use negative numbers, which don't really exist, is a reflection of the fact that we are more complex than our inanimate surroundings.
72) Orbits are based on the fact that energy cannot be created out of nothing. If the earth has a mutual gravitational attraction with an object in nearby space then why doesn't the object just fall to earth? Why might it go into orbit around the earth? When the object was approaching the earth the earth's gravitational acceleration would accelerate the object, and thus increase the energy of it's collision with the earth. But, since there is no energy in gravity, this might be creating energy out of nothing, which simply cannot be done. So what will happen is that it will go into earth orbit instead. Higher orbits have higher energy levels so if an asteroid from further out in space than the earth collides with the earth, that is acceptable because it is not creating energy out of nothing. The difference in the energy levels of the two orbits shows up as the energy of the collision on the earth's surface.
73) This is why there is apparently a lot higher density of meteorite impact craters on the moon and Mercury than there is on the earth and Mars. The moon and Mercury are of lower mass and far enough in from the Asteroid Belt, meaning at a lower energy orbit because they are closer to the sun, that energy is not created out of nothing, due to the acceleration of a falling object by their gravity, by a meteorite impact. Mars is close enough to the Asteroid Belt that the closeness in orbital energy deters meteorites from striking the planet because it would mean creating energy out of nothing, due to the acceleration of a falling object due to the planet's gravity. The two small moons that orbit Mars seem to be captured asteroids that never impacted the planet. The earth is massive enough that it deterred meteorite impacts, relative to the moon and Mercury, because the impact would have meant creating energy out of nothing.
74) Nuclear fusion is related to orbits and rotation. The simplest atom is hydrogen and all other elements are created from it by fusion in stars or primordial fusion after the Big Bang. Upon fusion the new atoms are more compact. My theory is that a cloud of pure hydrogen in space will not rotate and clouds of pure hydrogen will not orbit one another. The orbits and rotation that takes place when heavier, more compact, atoms are involved is the "ghost" of the space that was lost when the atoms were fused into a more compact form.
75) We should express more information in numbers, relative to words, as time goes on. We can express things in words that we do not completely understand. But to express anything in numbers we must completely understand it, such as a calendar. Theoretically when we know all that we can practically know we should be expressing everything in numbers. So if we analyzed large numbers of documents over time we should see an increase in the proportion of numbers, relative to words. We can use this ratio to gauge our progress toward a future theoretical "K-Day", or Knowledge Day, when we would know everything that we can practically know. It is not as simple as learning what we don't know because we are always learning more that we don't know. There is what we know, what we know that we don't know, but also what we don't know that we don't know.
76) We usually express complexity with vague descriptive or comparative terms, such as "very complex" or "less complex than". Complexity can actually be expressed with numbers. It is the value of the denominator when the number is expressed as a fraction or ratio. The value of the numerator doesn't matter because many identical objects or arrangements contain no more information than one. We often use words as the denominator, five apples has apples as the denominator. To quantify that we have to identify all that "apples" could have been but wasn't, what I refer to as "The One And The Many". It doesn't matter if zero is the numerator, "zero apples" is as much information as "five apples".
77) Repetition is not complexity because a higher number of something is the numerator, and it is only the value of the denominator that determines the complexity of the number. A hundred identical objects contain no more information than one of the objects. This means that the universe can achieve a lower energy state by reusing information. It does this by the large-scale universe being based on the information in it's building blocks, thus reusing information. One obvious example of this is the similarity between the orbitals of electrons in atoms and the orbits of the planets in the Solar System, which is made of atoms.
78) We will always define a straight line as the path of light. But that could get complicated. We also define a straight line as "the shortest possible route between two points. But since we get our information about our surroundings from light, or other electromagnetic waves, the two definitions appear to be one and the same. We would be unaware if light actually did not take the shortest route between two points. There may indeed be "shortcuts" across space that we cannot see because of our dependence on light for information.
79) Shortcuts across space could be due to dimensions. We are in a four-dimensional block of space, including time. But maybe our block is bent or twisted relative to the background space, we have no way of knowing. Suppose that we have a two-dimensional sheet of plastic, ignoring the slight third dimension, and suppose that a two-dimensional being lives within the plastic sheet. If the being went from one side of the sheet to the other it would be completely unaware if the sheet was bent or twisted, it would always see itself as moving in a straight line. It would not be able to access the potential "shortcuts" in it's journey, due to it's lower dimensional order. It is the same with the electrons of an electric current moving through a wire. The electrons are one-dimensional particles so, no matter how twisted and turning the wire is, the electrons would always see themselves as moving in a straight line.
80) Simple harmonic motion, including electromagnetic waves, and centrifugal force is caused by an informational mismatch between two dimensions and one dimension. A pendulum is pulled by the earth's gravity and should extend straight up and down. When swung, it seeks that position but that is only one dimension but the pendulum has information in two dimensions. This causes it to go too far in the opposite direction of it's two dimensions because the pendulum is trying to obey gravity by balancing it's two dimensions. Centrifugal force, in a rotating sphere, is because the lowest information state is for motion to be in a straight line. A point on the surface of the rotating sphere is "trying" to continue in a one-dimensional straight line as opposed to it's two-dimensional path on the surface of the rotating sphere.
81) Energy increases the distance over which electric charges must balance out. Positive and negative electric charges, of which everything in the universe is composed, must always be equal in number, balancing out to zero. In empty space the charges must immediately balance out to zero, which is why space is a checkerboard of alternating negative and positive charges. What energy does is to increase the distance over which the charges must balance out. There still has to be equal numbers of each charge, but not in every immediate location. This makes possible matter, which is energy holding like charges together against their mutual repulsion to form charged particles such as electrons, and electromagnetic radiation, which is energy overcoming the attraction between opposite charges to create waves in space. This is why nuclear and matter-antimatter reactions produce a lot of electromagnetic radiation. Energy is going from holding like charges together, as in matter, to holding opposite charges apart, as in electromagnetic radiation.
82) This concept of matter consisting of like charges held together, against their mutual repulsion, by energy makes gravity really simple. If the two electric charges, negative and positive, are equal but opposite then the two rules of electric charges, that opposite charges attract while like charges repel, must also be equal. If matter consists of the repulsion between like charges being overcome by energy then this means that there must be a net attractive force associated with matter. There is indeed a net attractive force associated with matter, it is what we refer to as gravity. This explains Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, about a gravitational mass curving space, by breaking the balance between the two rules of electric charges. It appears that gravity and light are two completely different things but yet both operate by the same Inverse Square Law. It is because gravity is electromagnetic just as light is. Each of the four basic forces is believed to be transmitted by a particle but the "gravitons", that are theorized to transmit gravity, have never been found.
83) All gravitational spheres in the universe must be different from one another. This means planets and stars, spheres that form by gravity. For any two spheres to be the same we would have to define which two, and that definition would be information. We know that the universe always seeks the lowest information state so, to avoid having to make any such choice, it is a lower information state to just have every such sphere different from every other sphere. This is why gravitational spheres are large enough, relative to the size of atoms and the size of the universe, for every one of them to be different from one another.
84) Snowflakes are always different from each other for the same reason. Water molecules are polar, one side is more negative and the other is more positive. This causes the molecules to line up, known as hydrogen bonding. Water is naturally a gas, water vapor, because it is lighter than air by molecule, and this is why water evaporates. This hydrogen bonding is what makes water molecules possible. When strings of water molecules are moving slowly enough for cross-links to form between them, the water freezes into ice. Snowflakes from when strings of water molecules join together in electrical balance. The snowflakes must be symmetrical to maintain the electrical balance, but can get very complex. The rings on icicles are one cm apart because this is how far the field of electrical balance can reach. But the configuration of snowflakes is information. It is a lower information state to have every snowflake different from every other one to avoid making the choice of which one is to be replicated first.
85) Nature prefers an equality to an inequality simply because the equality involves less information. A is equal to A involves less information than A is not equal to B. This is because the first involves only one piece of information, while the second involves two. This is why, if we have a region of high pressure and one of low, the two will equalize. The same goes for temperature. The flow from high to low pressure involves energy, but remember that energy and information is really the same thing.
86) The universe in one sentence is as follows: "There are two electric charges, negative and positive, opposite charges attract and like charges repel. Energy can, to some extent, overcome the basic rules of the charges". Everything else about the universe is mere details. When matter is converted into electromagnetic radiation, in combustion, nuclear reaction or, matter-antimatter reactions, the total displacement of electric charges from the checkerboard pattern of empty space remains the same. Matter is the overcoming of the repulsion of like charges by energy while electromagnetic radiation is the overcoming of the attraction of opposite charges by energy. We see the universe as we do, light, stars, planets, rocks, water, etc. only because of our scale and perspective, we are seeing our own complexity reflected back at us. All that there really is is electric charges and energy that can overcome the basic rules of electric charges.
87) Our dual-charge universe is the way that it is because there are two electric charges. Each dimension of space is a line of alternating negative and positive electric charges. That means, from any given point, in one direction the charges are negative--positive-negative and in the other direction positive-negative-positive. That is why there are two opposite directions in each dimension. If there were other than two charges that would be different. However many opposite charges the universe was composed of that is how many opposite directions there would have to be in each dimension of space. This would not affect the number of dimensions, just the number of opposite directions in each dimension. The Inverse Square Law is also because there are two electric charges. If there were three electric charges it would be the Inverse Cube Law.
88) So much about the nuclear and subatomic realms revolve around threes and thirds. It is very unlikely that this is a coincidence. Three quarks make up a hadron, a proton or a neutron. Up quarks have a charge of +2/3 and down quarks have a charge of -1/3. Quarks come in three colors, which describe their interactions, and there are three "generations" of quarks in the Standard Model. There are also three generations of leptons, which includes electrons and neutrinos. There is a simple explanation for it. In space there are two opposite directions per dimension. These are front and back, left and right, and up and down. This is because space is composed of two electric charges, which act as two points of information. The two charges, negative and positive, are defined by the two rules that opposite charges attract while like charges repel. Energy can overcome the rules of electric charges. Overcoming the repulsive force between like charges creates the charged particles of matter, such as electrons. The energy is what gives matter it's mass and is known as the Mass-Energy Equivalence. But if the repulsive force is overcome then that means there must be a net attractive force involving matter, and it's what we refer to as gravity. Every basic force is believed to be transmitted by a particle, but yet the theorized "gravitons" have never been found. That's because gravity is electromagnetic. Energy can also overcome the attractive force between opposite charges and this forms electromagnetic radiation. It is so-called because it disturbs the underlying balance between the negative and positive charges composing space. Matter consists of one-dimensional strings with mass. Electromagnetic radiation has no mass but consists of two-dimensional waves. So if matter is converted into electromagnetic radiation, such as by a nuclear or antimatter reaction, mass is exchanged for an additional dimension of space and the total displacement of electric charges remains constant.
The two electric charges are what cause the two opposite directions per dimension. But the overcoming of the repulsive force by energy creates an imbalance inside matter, which is a higher information state. The now unbalanced attractive force forms a third point of information and this is manifested by a third direction per dimension. This is why we see everything on a subatomic scale or actually inside the particles in threes and thirds. There are effectively three opposite directions per dimension but, since we must see through space, we can see only two of them. Since all of the information that we receive depends on negatively-charged electrons, we have an inherent bias toward positive charges and this is why we see up quarks as having a +2/3 charge but down quarks a -1/3 charge. The following diagram shows how the charges composing space have two directions per dimension, because from any point there must be a positive charge in one direction and a negative in the other. But the imbalance inside particles is manifested as a third direction per dimension. There is a system that describes the behavior of quarks, known as Quantum Chromodynamics. It sounds simple but ends up being so complicated that it is difficult to use. That is because there are three directions per dimension actually inside the particles of matter, but we can only perceive two of them.
89) There was no answer to be found as to what exactly time is. I started wondering about it myself, which is what led to my cosmology theory. But it is simple. Particles, such as electrons, are actually strings in four-dimensional space. We perceive one of the dimensions as time, which is the dimension in which the strings are primarily aligned. Our consciousness moves along the bundles of strings comprising our bodies and brains at what we perceive as the speed of light. This explains both what time is and why the speed of light is what it is, which cannot be otherwise explained. If a string or bundle of strings is at an angle relative to ours, in the other three spatial dimensions, it appears as an object in motion. If a string or bundle of strings is at a right angle to ours we perceive it as moving at the speed of light. The speed of light appears as the maximum possible velocity because a right angle is the maximum possible angle.
90) Another thing that my cosmology theory provides a simple explanation for is memory. The part of the brain that holds memories and information is about the size of an apple. How can this possibly contain all of the memories and knowledge that a mature person has? It can't, it's absolutely impossible. But if my cosmology theory is correct, that what we perceive as particles such as electrons are really strings in four dimensions because we can only see in three of the dimensions and perceive the other as time, then the brain has a whole other dimension to it and we are electrically connected to our past.
91) The Higgs Boson is unique as a fundamental element of the Standard Model in that it has no "spin". In other words, it doesn't "point" anywhere. But the Higgs Boson gives matter it's mass. In my cosmology theory there are four dimensions of space in which the matter of our universe exists. Matter consists of very long strings aligned mostly in the dimension of space that we perceive as time, and cannot move around in at will. Gravity is trying to pull all matter back together into this plane, this acts on the matter's mass. The Higgs Boson actually is "pointing" in this direction but we cannot see or measure it because we cannot access this fourth dimension at will.
92) Antimatter is like matter but with the electric charges reversed. Positively-charged positrons are in orbitals around a negatively-charged nucleus. Both consist of electric charges with like charges being held together by energy against their mutual repulsion. This internal energy is what gives matter mass and is known as the Mass-Energy Equivalence. When matter and antimatter are reacted together the internal energy of both is released in a fantastic burst of energy, and the electric charges in both rearrange back into the alternating checkerboard of empty space. This is where Einstein's famous formula, E = MC squared comes in. Energy and mass are equivalent but with a small amount of mass equivalent to tremendous amounts of energy. This is because energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. The speed of light is squared in the formula because we are moving along the bundles of strings that comprise our bodies and brains, at what we perceive as the speed of light, and electromagnetic radiation only moves at right angles to that, thus forming a square. When a nucleus is split the two like-charged halves also try to get away from each other by the shortest possible route, which is a right angle that we perceive as the speed of light. We can also only see and receive light, and other electromagnetic radiation, from right angles to our bundles of strings.
93) Electron Dependency is the fact that we are entirely dependent on electrons to receive light or other electromagnetic radiation. The energy of the radiation knocks electrons out of atomic orbitals, in our eyes or equipment, thus creating an electric current. But an electron has a whole electric charge of -1. This makes us only able to see or detect electromagnetic radiation that has been created with whole electric charges. But quarks, of which protons and neutrons are composed, have fractional electric charges. Is this why quark stars are theorized to exist, but we have never detected them? Could it explain what dark matter is? It appears that there is a kind of iceberg structure of matter. The portion of the matter that we can see is the "tip of the iceberg", based on "whole" electric charges. The majority that we cannot see is what we can detect gravitationally as dark matter. This also causes us to perceive electrons as mere point particles. But this is because we cannot discern any internal structure in electrons if we are dependent on the electrons themselves for information. Remember my principle that our basic presumption is that we have an unbiased view of the universe, but we don't.
The following diagram shows my "iceberg" model of matter. The section above the "waterline", with the 1, represents the matter that we can see and interact with, primarily atoms where an electron has a charge of -1 and a proton of +1. Below the waterline is the quarks, with fractional electric charges. This is why we have never seen quarks individually and have never seen quarks stars, which are widely believed to exist. Below that are black holes, which we cannot see. Some black holes form by the gravitational accretion of matter but supermassive black holes, which couldn't have formed by the accretion of matter, are original matter from the beginning of the universe that never became part of particles or atoms.
94) We tend to confuse the infinite, the finite, and the infinitesimal. We might think, at first glance, that the center of mass and the center of gravity of a planet is one and the same, but it isn't. The center of mass is constant but the center of gravity isn't, it depends on our distance from the planet. Gravity operates by the Inverse Square Law, but the near side of the planet is closer to us and therefore has a stronger gravitational effect than the further side. The closer to the planet we are the greater is the difference between the gravitational effects of the two sides and therefore the more difference between the center of mass and the relative center of gravity. Only if we are at an infinite distance from the planet are the two centers one and the same. This explains, for one thing, the gaps in the rings of Saturn. Another example is odds. If you are playing a casino game with 1 / 20 odds of winning, and you have played 19 times, you are due for a win, right? Wrong. No finite number of plays guarantee a win. Only if you play an infinite number of times must the wins conform to 1 / 20.
The following diagram shows the internal layers of Saturn, with layers getting denser toward the center. The black dot, Point 1, is it's center of mass. The diagram actually looks like the rings of Saturn, and that is no coincidence. An object in orbit close to Saturn might have it's center of gravity at the red dot, Point 2. An object in orbit still further away might have it's center of gravity at Point 3, the blue dot, and one still further away at Point 4, the green dot. Only if an object were an infinite distance from Saturn would it's center of gravity be the same as the planet's center of mass. But having the center of mass in a higher density region means the object must have more orbital energy and thus must be in a higher orbit. If the density layers within the planet change suddenly then the higher orbital energies must also come suddenly. This is why there are gaps in Saturn's rings. It is a reflection of the internal structure of the planet.
95) This difference between the center of mass and the center of gravity explains the rilles on the moon. Rilles are long cracks, like canyons, on the surface of the moon, that are as yet unexplained. The gravity of the earth has a greater pull on the side of the moon that is closer to it. This difference acts to pull the moon apart, and these long cracks are a manifestation of that. The same kind of cracks are on Phobos, the moon of Mars that is closest to the planet.
96) There is only one sensible explanation for the "seas" that we see on the moon. We know that the gravity of the moon produces tides in the earth's oceans. But if the moon produces tides and the earth is 81 times the mass of the moon, then what effect might the earth's gravity have on the moon, especially since the moon was once much closer to the earth? The moon is gravitationally locked so that the same side of it always faces earth. The difference between the center of mass and the center of gravity means that the earth's gravity has a greater pull on the closer side of the moon. This tidal effect, which means the difference in gravity, pulled magma to form the lava plains that we see as the "seas" on the moon, which are not found on the far side of the moon.
97) With the atmospheres being roughly equivalent, the coldest planets tend to have the strongest winds. The winds on frigid and distant Neptune are like the shock waves from a nuclear bomb. But why should this be when winds are caused by heat, actually a difference in heat? The answer is not just a difference in temperature but a proportional difference in temperature. The closer the temperature of a planet is to absolute zero the greater the proportional difference of any given difference in temperature would be, and thus the stronger the wind that difference in temperature would produce.
98) The centrifugal force of the earth's rotation should cause rivers, at least major rivers, to tend to flow either toward the equator, or eastward with the direction of rotation. This is the way it usually is, but there are a few exceptions. The Nile and Rhine Rivers flow northward, away from the equator. The Niagara River also flows northward, as well as westward, although it is technically more of a strait than a river. The Narmada River flows westward, against the earth's rotation. The Congo River flows toward the equator but then loops around and flows away from it. The principle I came up with is that a tectonic collision is required to get major rivers to flow in these opposite directions.
99) What is the difference between an ocean and a sea? An ocean is one of the primary areas of water on earth and seas are branches off an ocean. By this definition the Mediterranean should be an ocean because it has several seas branching off it. But it is a closing ocean because of the tectonic movement of Africa northward. But this creates an imbalance in the natural distribution of land and water. The Mediterranean is closing so Red Sea and Great Rift Valley are opening up to rebalance it.
100) What I refer to as "the perfection of technology" means that if we have to understand how a given technology works in order to use it then the technology has room for improvement. When there is no need at all to understand how the technology works in order to use it then the technology is "mature" and has no more practical room for improvement. When personal computers first came on the scene the average person couldn't imagine using one. This does not apply to the casing or packaging of the product, only to the technology itself.
101) Some devices are defined as "electric", and others as "electronic". But what exactly is the difference between the two? One definition is that electric means the flow of current through a conductor and electronic is through a semiconductor or a vacuum. The trouble with that definition is that, in neon lighting, the current flows through the gas, which is not a full conductor, but the lights are considered as electric. The only definition that makes any sense involves the direction of current flow. If the device would operate regardless of the direction of current flow then it is electric. If the direction of current flow is an essential part of it's operation then it is electronic.
102) The earth is tilted 23.5 degrees on it's rotational axis, relative to the plane of it's orbit around the sun. This is what causes the seasons but it is also a higher information state that requires a special explanation. The continents are moving around tectonically, driven by the spin of the earth. They have moved from the southern to the northern hemisphere, which is why today most of the earth's land mass is in the northern hemisphere. This movement affects the mass distribution of the earth but the line from the center of mass of the earth to the center of mass of the sun must remain constant. To keep this line constant the earth has tilted on it's axis.
103) There is a great meteorite impact crater at the south pole of the moon, the Aitken Basin. Why should this impact have occurred right at the south pole? The answer is that it didn't. The change in the mass of the moon, caused by either the addition of mass by the impact or the loss of mass by it being blasted away by the impact, unbalanced the moon's rotation. It is gravitationally locked to the earth but effectively rotates once while orbiting the earth. The moon shifted on it's rotational axis so that the impact site was at one of the poles in order to rebalance the rotation. We can see this shift in that the lava plains that we see as the "seas" on the moon are centered to the north of the moon's equator, rather than on the equator. The same kind of rebalancing shift apparently happened on Mars. It's southern hemisphere is higher in elevation, and thus heavier, than it's northern hemisphere, but the two are balanced in the planet's rotation.
104) The Big Bang is known to have given off a lot of radiation in the form of very short wavelength gamma rays. We can still detect this radiation although it's wavelength has been stretched by the expansion of the universe. The first atoms that formed was hydrogen, with only one proton and one electron. I believe that the radius of the hydrogen atom, the distance between the proton and electron, is a function of the wavelength of the first radiation, since the energy of the radiation must have been what provided the orbital energy of the electrons.
105) The thing that first got me thinking that there must be a dimension of space that we cannot see, but perceive as time, is the radiation that we can detect from the Big Bang. If we live in three dimensions we should be able to determine the direction to the location of the Big Bang, and the radiation should be coming at us from that direction. The radiation is actually coming at us equally from all directions and we perceive the Big Bang as an event in the past but cannot determine a direction for it. The fulfillment of String Theory is that the particles that comprise matter, such as electrons, are really strings in four dimensions of space but we perceive them as particles because we can only see in three of the four dimensions. This goes back to the false presumption that we have an unbiased view of the universe, but we don't.
106) Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, about mass, time and, length being relative and revolving around the absolutely sacrosanct speed of light, has been proven beyond the slightest doubt but yet cannot be literally true. The theory is from 1905, before it was found that cosmic rays are actually particles, such as electrons and alpha particles moving at or near the speed of light. In Einstein's theory the mass of an object increases with velocity until it reaches infinite mass at the speed of light. But gravity is also proportional to mass and if an object had infinite mass then it should also have infinite gravity. If this theory was literally true then a single cosmic ray particle, moving at or near the speed of light, should wrap the whole earth around it with it's tremendous gravity. But yet clearly it doesn't. What is happening is that the theory is the way it looks to us. I refer to it as "with us" while ordinary textbook physics is "without us", because that's the way it would be whether we were observing it or not. Time is the movement of our consciousness and the speed of light is the maximum possible speed because a right angle is the maximum possible angle, as described in my cosmology theory.
Remember that all around you, every day, are things that no one has ever pointed out. Some of these entries refer to my cosmology theory. An abbreviated version of the theory is in "Cosmology Theory In Diagrams", January 2024.
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