The Story Of China

By going over the history of China, we can see how it got to where it is today. After each section there are "Observations", so that we can see how history repeats itself. Credit to Wikipedia for dates and fact-checking.

PRE-IMPERIAL CHINA

The mythical beginning of China was the Xia Dynasty, founded about 2000 B.C. It is referred to in very early writings but direct evidence of it has not been found.

This was followed by the Shang (or Yin) Dynasty, founded about 1600 B.C. Their capital was Yinxu, at the present city of Anyang, but left in ruins after the Zhou, the following dynasty, victory over the Shang Dynasty. This capital was rediscovered in 1899, and is open to the public.

The Zhou Dynasty, established in 1046 B.C. by King Wu, was the longest-reigning dynasty in China's history.

The Spring and Autumn Period, within the Zhou Dynasty, is named for a work of literature called The Spring and Autumn Annals. The Zhou Dynasty was forced by the Qin, the following dynasty, to move their capital eastward to the city of Luoyang, which they founded. The first part of the Zhou Dynasty, with the capital near Xian, Xianyang, was known as the Western Zhou 1046-771 BC.

The Eastern Zhou Dynasty, with the capital at Luoyang, was a period of instability that saw hundreds of defacto states emerge but that were eventually consolidated into a seven principal states. These fought in what is known as the Warring States Period. It was during this time that the philosophy and religion of Confucianism and Taoism began, which are so important to China. The Warring States Period was the final part of the Zhou Dynasty.

The Spring and Autumn Period, nearly 300 years long, together with the Warring States Period comprise the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, after the capital had been moved to Luoyang. The Eastern Zhou Dynasty lasted 515 years, The Zhou Dynasty lasted 790 years altogether. The Spring and Autumn Period saw many nobles becoming increasingly independent of the dynasty's declining power. The breakup of one of the new states, Jin, is considered as beginning of Warring States Period.

Qin was the eventual winner of the Seven Warring States. It was to the west of China and became the following dynasty.

The Xia, Shang and, Zhou Dynasties could be called Pre-Imperial China. Imperial China followed this era.

OBSERVATIONS

Notice how the Zhou Dynasty moved eastward, after a defeat by the Qin. This is to be a recurring theme with later dynasties, starting in the west but later moving east after suffering a defeat. Most recently, this pattern was repeated by the Nationalists, or the Koumintang, leaving the mainland and moving east to Taiwan after the loss of the Civil War in 1949.

Notice also how the fragmentation in the latter part of the Zhou Dynasty, the Spring and Autumn Period and then the Warring States Period repeated itself in the Twentieth Century as the "Warlord Era" after the revolution in 1911 that ended Imperial China and began the modern republic.

The philosophy of Chairman Mao very much resembles the governing principles of Confucius.

Much later, Japan also had a "Warring States Period" that was named for the Chinese era by that name.

IMPERIAL CHINA

Early Imperial China was the Qin, Han and, Jin Dynasties.
Middle Imperial China was the Sui, Tang and, Song Dynasties.
Late Imperial China was the Yuan, Ming and, Qing Dynasties.

EARLY IMPERIAL CHINA

The Qin Dynasty lasted only from 221-207 B.C. but had what it took in governing skills to unify China after the Warring States Period. It arose 35 years after the Zhou Dynasty had collapsed. Their capital of Xianyang is now within the city of Xian. The first confirmed emperor to rule all of China was Qin Shi Huang. He is the one who was buried with the famous Terra Cotta Army that was discovered at Xian.

The Han Dynasty was a golden age that was the peak of early Chinese civilization. It was founded by a peasant named Liu Bang and was led by the famous Emperor Wu. The philosophy of Confucius became a vital part of Chinese society during the Han Dynasty. The Silk Road began which led westward from the city of Xian, which was built near Xianyang. The majority ethnic group of China today are called Han Chinese.

The glory of the Han Dynasty was interrupted, at the time of Jesus, by Wang Mang. He ruled what is called the Xin Dynasty for 14 years, 9-23 A.D., before being overthrown in Xian and killed. This interregnum separated the Western Han Dynasty from the Eastern Han Dynasty. Other than this interruption, the Han Dynasty lasted from 202 B.C. to 220 A.D.

The Eastern Han Dynasty, like the Eastern Zhou Dynasty before them, had it's capital at Luoyang and is known for first making paper. It produced an all-around scientific genius named Zhang Heng. The breakup of the Han Dynasty began with the peasant Yellow Turban Rebellion. This formed the "Three Kingdoms" of Wei, Shu and, Wu.

The Jin Dynasty, lasting from about 265 to 420, reunited China but then saw fragmentation of the country and conquest of Xian and Luoyang by non-Han peoples. This resulted in the "Sixteen Kingdoms of Five Barbarians" and brought about the Eastern Jin Dynasty, which moved capital to Nanjing. This Jin Dynasty was actually the Early Jin Dynasty because there was also a Later Jin Dynasty.

This was followed by the "Northern and Southern Dynasties", where northern and southern China were ruled separately. This era lasted until the year 589. A great scientific genius of this time was Zu Chongzhi. But there was eventual assimilation of the non-Han peoples into the Han Chinese.

OBSERVATIONS

During China's Cultural Revolution, during the 1960s, the rural roots of China were emphasized. Those who had grown up in the modern cities had a lot to learn from the farms. Notice how this is a reflection of the Han Dynasty, which is considered as a great golden age, being started by a peasant named Liu Bang. The end of the Han Dynasty was actually also brought about by a peasant rebellion.

Notice again this pattern of a dynasty starting in the west but moving it's center eastward after some setback or interruption. This happened to both the Han and the Jin Dynasties, as it would to the Nationalists (Koumintang) after the Civil War of 1949.

We can see that China is a vast country that is definitely not easy to govern. When a dynasty breaks up, it can result in fragmentation until the next dynasty reunites the country. This is what the Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China, accomplished. Maybe this is why China's government makes sure to maintain control in regions like Tibet and Xinjiang. The period when China's north and south were governed separately explains China's emphasis today on the speaking of Mandarin Chinese to keep Cantonese speakers in the south as part of the country.

MIDDLE IMPERIAL CHINA

The Sui Dynasty didn't last long, from 581-618, but was very important in that it reunified the country and was the beginning of Middle Imperial China. The Sui Dynasty had the necessary governing skills to run the country. Their time saw the beginning of imperial exams and the Grand Canal to link north and south.

The Tang Dynasty was a great golden age. The capital was back at Xian which was the largest city in the world. The Japanese capitals of first Nara and then Kyoto were both modeled on Xian. Taizong was a famous Tang emperor, known for his logical thinking instead of superstition. The Tang Dynasty introduced gunpowder. Buddhism came to China in 1st Century but Tang Dynasty tried to suppress it.

Empress Wu, the only female emperor, briefly restored the Zhou Dynasty and the An Lushan Rebellion, in 755, began a chaotic period that ended the Tang Dynasty, ushering in the brief Yan Dynasty. "The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms" was a chaotic period, from 907 to 960, that saw the Shatuo Turks rule over the Han Chinese and Vietnam become an independent country.

The Song Dynasty, beginning in 960 with it's capital at Kaifeng, reunited most of China but there was the Liao Dynasty ruling in the far north. This was a high point of Chinese civilization, with paper money and printing with blocks of wood, but it ended with the conquest of China by the Mongols. There was also the Jin Dynasty, or Jurchen, from northeastern China, from where the Manchus would later come from to rule China.

The Song Dynasty is divided chronologically into the Northern Song and Southern Song. The Northern Song Dynasty had capital at Kaifeng but moved south after conquest by the Jin Dynasty to new capital on the other side of the Yangtze River at Hangzhou. This was actually the Later Jin Dynasty because there had been an Early Jin Dynasty. The Later Jin Dynasty lasted from 1115 to 1234.

OBSERVATIONS

Some people claim that the Chinese Government is somewhat hostile toward Christianity. But Buddhism was once a foreign religion that had been brought to China, it actually originated in India. One consequence of the Silk Road was that it was a way for foreign religions to enter China, and Buddhism wasn't always welcome either. The Tang Dynasty tried to suppress it. But today it is difficult to imagine China without Buddhism. Confucianism and Taoism are native to China. These are considered as China's "Three Teachings".

The long-reigning Joseon Dynasty, of neighboring Korea, revered Confucius even more than his native China did, and it also tried to suppress Buddhism.

LATE IMPERIAL CHINA

The Yuan Dynasty began in 1271 with Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, as emperor of China. Two of the three dynasties of Late Imperial China have been conquest dynasties. Non-Han conquerors before had not ruled all of China. Kublai Khan conquered the Jin and Southern Song Dynasties.Beijing was established as the Yuan Dynasty capital. The Grand Canal, linking Hangzhou in the south to Beijing in the north, was restored. Marco Polo visited from Europe and this was the only time that a single nation had controlled the entire Silk Road, which ran to the west from Xian. Hangzhou became very important as a port city. The paper money, with printing, of the Song Dynasty would bring the downfall of the Yuan by hyperinflation. The bubonic plague, which so devastated Europe, also came at this time. The Mongols were never completely enculturated as Chinese.

The Ming Dynasty began in 1368. The Mongols retreated northward to form the Northern Yuan Dynasty. The Ming Dynasty capitals were Beijing and Nanjing. The Ming Dynasty were great wall builders and the present city wall of the very old city of Xian was actually built by the Ming Dynasty. There was strong central government in China during their time. The Ming Great Wall was built, which is much of what we see of the Great Wall today.

The emphasis in economics during the Ming Dynasty was agriculture, not handicrafts. There was a lot of interaction with Japan and the Fourth Chinese Domination of Vietnam, lasting 20 years. In 1598, the Ming Dynasty got Japanese forces to leave Korea, restoring the Joseon Dynasty. The Ming Dynasty sent the Zheng He sea expeditions to Africa. It was the Ming Dynasty that built the famous Forbidden City of Beijing that we see today.

Ming Dynasty control declined in Manchuria, China's northeast region. Manchu tribes broke away and proclaimed the Later Jin Dynasty, named for the earlier Jin, which brought to an end the Mongol Northern Yuan Dynasty. This Later Jin Dynasty would become known as the Qing Dynasty. They were called Manchus after Manchuria and would rule China from 1644-1911.

The Manchu were also known as Jurchens. This would be the second conquest dynasty, after the Yuan, to rule all of China. The Jurchen people had established the earlier Jin Dynasty. In 1635 name was changed from Jurchen to Manchu. "Jin" means gold. Nurhaci was first Qing Dynasty emperor.

The Shun Dynasty was a brief one-year period of rule between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, led by Li Zicheng in 1644. It was formed back in the original capital of imperial China, Xian. It had started as a peasant rebellion against the Ming Dynasty.

The Qing Dynasty, the Manchus, captured Beijing in 1644. A Ming general had appealed to the Manchus for help against the uprising that brought the Shun Dynasty, but then they went on to conquer China and rule as the Qing Dynasty. The Qing conquest of the Ming would last most of the Seventeenth Century, 1618-1683, and would be very bloody, especially at a place called Yangzhou where the Qing were enraged at the loss of many of their soldiers due to cannon fire.

The Ming Dynasty continued on for a time in southern China, known as the Southern Ming Dynasty and ruled from Nanjing. The Ming Dynasty was eventually limited to the Kingdom of Tungning, on Taiwan, with hope to recapture the mainland. The Qing Dynasty evacuated the coast of the mainland opposite Taiwan.

The elite military force of the Qing Dynasty was called the Eight Banners, the rest was the Green Standard Army. Russia was a rising power too and the Qing Dynasty had border clashes with them. The unsuccessful "Revolt of the Three Feudatories" was three southern provinces revolting against the Qing Dynasty rule. The revolt was suppressed by Kangxi Emperor, one of the greatest of Chinese emperors.

The Manchus did adopt Confucianism but in 1645 forced the Han Chinese to wear the Queue hairstyle. The late Eighteenth Century was the height of the Qing Dynasty.

But the Qing Dynasty was weakened by internal revolts, particularly the Taiping Rebellion by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the younger brother of Christ, 1851-64. It began in the south of China, with Nanjing as it's eventual capital. It was the worst conflict in the world before the World Wars.

Dowager Cixi was the mother of the ninth Qing emperor, and she held effective power for decades. Upon her son's death, she broke succession rules to install her nephew as emperor. The Self-Strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days Reform were late Nineteenth-Century efforts at reform and modernization by the Qing Dynasty.

OBSERVATIONS

Notice how the Ming Dynasty economic emphasis on agriculture, rather than on industry, is reflected in the emphasis of the 1960s Cultural Revolution on what city people could learn by going to work on farms.

The Ming Dynasty would eventually retreat to Taiwan. This was repeated in 1949 when the Nationalists (Koumintang) also withdrew to Taiwan after defeat in the Civil War.

The Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols, conquered the Song Dynasty. But the Song Dynasty had widely used paper money. China also had printing with blocks. This combination of easily printing money proved damaging to the Yuan Dynasty, as their economy suffered from hyperinflation.

The Ming Dynasty naval missions of Admiral Zheng He to Africa set the precedent of China's widespread business across Africa today.

The revolt in southern China against the Qing Dynasty helps explain why the Chinese Government today, with the northern city of Beijing as capital, wants to emphasize speaking Mandarin Chinese over the Cantonese that is spoken in the south.

Some consider it unfortunate that the Chinese Government today has some hostility to Christianity. As we have seen, Buddhism was also once a foreign religion that was not always welcome either. But we have to understand the Taiping Rebellion of 1851-64. It was led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be "a younger brother of Christ". The goal was to set up the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The rebellion ruled much of southern China and was possibly the deadliest conflict the world has ever seen, with the exception of the world wars. The rebellion was ultimately defeated but it is interesting that when the Qing Dynasty was overthrown, and Imperial China ended, the first president of the republic, Sun Yat Sen, was a Christian and a southerner.

The Qing Dynasty, or Manchus, was part of an imperial era of dynasties that lasted into the Twentieth Century. There was the Romanov Dynasty in Russia, the Ottomans in Turkey, the Qajar Dynasty in Iran, the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan, the Kaisers in Germany, the Joseon Dynasty in Korea and, the Nguyen Dynasty in Vietnam.

THE MODERN REPUBLIC OF CHINA

The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 began with the Wuchang Uprising. Wuchang is part of the city of Wuhan. Old stories of Qing Dynasty brutalities during the conquest of the Ming Dynasty were brought up to inspire anti-Qing feelings. A provisional government was formed in Nanjing that ended two thousand years of imperial rule. But this brought the "Warlord Era" when the country almost fragmented. This fragmentation was a repeat of the much-earlier endings of the Zhou and Han Dynasties..

Sun Yat Sen wanted to modernize China, and realized that the Qing Dynasty must be overthrown in order to accomplish that. He made unsuccessful attempts at overthrow, and spent much time in exile. Sun Yat Sen was a Christian and was in the U.S. when the Xinhai Revolution succeeded in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and ending Imperial China, and he went home.

At first there were two governments, based in Canton in the south and Beijing in the north. But Sun Yat Sen's forces triumphed and a new capital was established in Nanjing. Sun Yat Sen remains popular today both on mainland China and in Taiwan.

Sun Yat Sen died of cancer in 1925. His very popular mausoleum is in Nanjing, which was his capital. Sun Yat Sen is today honored and admired across the world, and is considered as the founder of modern China.

Chiang Kai Shek was his protege that led the Northern Expedition to defeat the warlords. Chiang Kai Shek was also a post-humous brother-in-law of Sun Yat Sen. Chiang Kai Shek ruled 1928-1975 and brought the body of Sun Yat Sen to the mausoleum in his capital of Nanjing. His government was split into left and right. The Left Koumintang capital was in Wuhan, the right Koumintang capital in Nanjing. Like Sun Yat Sen, Chiang Kai Shek was not in China when the Xinhai Revolution began.

There were a number of Long Marches by the Communists, after initially being unable to take power, not just one. The destination of the Long Marches was Shanxi province. In Civil War, the Nationalists (Koumintang) generally controlled the cities but not the countryside. The Communists, led by Chairman Mao, triumphed in the Civil War of 1949 and the Nationalists retreated to Taiwan. There is no sign of the two being reunited. But the world now generally recognizes the mainland, the People's Republic of China, as the "real" China.

Chairman Mao died in 1976 and Deng Xiaoping, although not Mao's chosen successor, took power. China was officially Communist but the government of Deng Xiaoping undertook far-reaching reforms, beginning in 1978. The majority of industry remained owned by the state, but there would be a chance for private business and foreign investment and ownership would be permitted in certain "Special Economic Zones". From there, the economy has gradually been liberalized in stages. The goal is to avoid the dogmatism of the west and achieve the best mix of a centrally-controlled economy and a market economy. In some areas, the free market may work best, but in others it may not. The result has been remarkable prosperity, although the liberalizing reforms are not universally popular, and some have been scaled back.

Two of the best-known Special Economic Zones, familiar to westerners, have been the new city of Shenzhen, just opposite Hong Kong, and the new financial district of Shanghai, Lujiazui.

OBSERVATIONS

The life story of Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh, as a world traveler and leader, is quite similar to that of Sun Yat Sen.

Vietnam, a neighboring Communist country began it's own roughly similar economic liberalizing reforms in 1986.