Southern Poland

This is the colorful old city of Poznan with it's Thirteenth-Century Town Hall. The Town Hall is the building with three floors of columns. Poznan has Poland's original cathedral where the first ruler of the country and his son are buried.

 It has been a vital city since the beginning of the country. Cathedral Island could be considered as the center of early Poland but the capital was later moved to Krakow.

There are multiple scenes following. To see the scenes, after the first one, you must first click the up arrow, ^, before you can move on to the next scene by clicking the right or forward arrow, >, After clicking the up arrow, you can then hide the previews of successive scenes, if you wish.

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Lodz is not a medieval city but a product of the Industrial Revolution. It is the manufacturing center of the central part of Poland. The following scene scenes begin in a complex know. as the Manufaktura

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This is central Lodz.

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Wroclaw is a medieval city of Bohemian origin. It has been part of many empires before coming back to Poland. This is Wroclaw Old Town Hall in Market Square

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Mostly modern Katowice is another city that was a product of the Industrial Revolution.

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Here is Wawel Cathedral, in the city of Krakow, and the adjoining Royal Castle

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Krakow is a very old city that was the capital of Poland for more than five hundred years. The capital was moved to Warsaw because Poland and Lithuania formed a union and Warsaw was halfway between Krakow and Vilnius. Krakow was the focal point of the Polish Renaissance during the Jagellonian Dynasty. Wawel Cathedral was the royal coronation cathedral and was where Pope John Paul preached his first sermon. The enclosed fortress was the center of Poland in the same way that the Moscow Kremlin is of Russia.

This is Main Square of old Krakow

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Wadowice is about a thousand years old and known as the hometown of Pope John Paul II. The first scene is St. Mary's Basilica. The building to the right is where the family of the future Pope John Paul had an apartment when he was born.

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Rzeszow is a medieval city with a famous old castle that was rebuilt in the Twentieth Century.

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This is Lublin's Old Town and Castle that was begun in the Twelfth Century.

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The Measurables

This has been added to the theory on this blog, "The Flow Of Information Through The Universe".

There are 92 elements, or different atoms. But most of these are rare. We have seen how the few common atoms act as points of information that affects how the environment operates. There are two separate "Rules Of Common Atoms", one for the universe of inanimate matter and the other for biology.

You may remember the acronym from biology class, "CHNOPS". This stands for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and, sulfur. These are by far the most common atoms in biological molecules, and they act as information points. Color does not really exist in the universe of inanimate matter, it is just the way our eyes and brains interpret the different wavelengths of visible light.

But have you ever wondered why there are six basic colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and, violet? It is because we are composed of six common atoms, and these act as information points. This applies to all living things, and is the reason that living things are classified into six "kingdoms". This does not mean that the rare "trace" elements are not important but the abundance of these six atoms causes them to act as information points.

Today I would like to add something else to "The Rule Of Common Atoms". There are six basic measurable entities and this is because of the six common atoms, CHNOPS, in the same way as colors and biological kingdoms.

According to the Wikipedia article, SI Base Unit, there are seven basic measurables. These are time, measured in seconds, distance, measured in meters, mass, measured in kilograms, temperature, measured in Celsius or Kelvin, electricity, measured in amperes, amount of substance, measured in moles, and luminous intensity, measured in candelas.

But a mole is simply a number of atoms, actually 6.02 x 10 raised to the 23rd power, of atoms or molecules. This many atoms or molecules of an element or substance will have a mass in grams of it's atomic weight or molecular weight. But that means that the mole is related to the unit of mass, gram or kilogram, and thus is not an entirely separate measurable unit. That leaves us with six basic measurable units, the same number as the common atoms represented by the acronym CHNOPS.

All of the other units that we use to measure, such as meters per second, miles per hour, or newton-meters, are combinations of these fundamental units or their English equivalents.

But what my theory of "The Flow Of Information Through The Universe" points to is that, like the colors, we see these six basic measurables in the universe not really because of what it is but because of what we are. We are more complex than our surrounding universe of inanimate matter and, when we measure anything, we are projecting our complexity onto it and it is reflected back at us, specifically the information brought about by the six common atoms.

The universe is actually only negative and positive electric charges but we have our own scale and perspective when we look at the universe, and this adds information.

My cosmology theory, "The Theory Of Stationary Space", which is separate from this theory about "The Flow Of Information Through The Universe", reveals that time is actually something that is within us and not the inanimate universe around us. Distance is simply the number of electric charges in a straight line in space. Electric charge, in amperage, involves the concentration of like charges in matter. Temperature, the energetic movement of atoms and molecules, is a function of time and distance like any other velocity but we perceive it as heat, rather than the kinetic motion that it is, because of our relative scale perspective.

Luminosity is a function of electric charge since space is, according to my cosmology theory, composed of a multi-dimensional checkerboard of alternating negative and positive electric charges. But, once again, we see it as light, and other electromagnetic radiation, due to our scale perspective. The checkerboard of alternating electric charges ordinarily balances out to zero but we see the waves as electromagnetic because they disturb this underlying balance.

This means that length, electric charge and, mass are all really the same thing. We see it in the different forms that we measure only because we are projecting our complexity on the inanimate universe. The length is the number of charges in a straight line through space. Electric charge is the concentration of like charges, held together by energy, in matter. The mass is actually the energy in matter that holds the like charges together against their mutual repulsion, which we express as the well-known Mass-Energy Equivalence. Weight is simply the effect of gravity on mass.

We can thus see that, once again, we see the universe as we do not only because of what it is but also because of what we are. We see these fundamental six measurable entities because we are projecting our own complexity on the less-complex inanimate universe around us. There are six because of the information of the six common atoms, in the same way as the fundamental colors and the "kingdoms" into which living things are classified.

The Relationship Between Molecules And Dust

This has been added to the compound posting on this blog, "The Lowest Information Point". We have seen some relationships involving the fundamental scales of the universe already.

In "The Chemical-Nuclear-Astronomical Relationship", which is part of "The Lowest Information Point", we saw that the relationship between the amount of matter that must collect by gravity to form a sphere in space and the far greater amount of matter that must collect by gravity before the mutual gravity is strong enough to overcome the electron repulsion between atoms and crunch atoms together to initiate the nuclear fusion of a star is essentially equal to the relationship between the energy released by chemical processes and the far greater energy per mass released by nuclear processes.

In "The Gem Formation Hypothesis", we saw that first, natural gems that refract light are very limited in size and second, that they are formed by geological processes. That can only mean one thing. Gems are made of atoms that are shaped into their final form by the processes in the earth. The practical limit to the size of gems that refract light must therefore be that the gems must be closer in scale to that of their component atoms than to the size of the earth. If the gem were closer to the scale of the earth than to the scale of the atoms, the geological processes would not be able to form the atoms into the neat rows so that light can be refracted by passing between the atoms.

Today we have another such scale relationship. We have seen that so much of the matter in the universe is in the form of dust because there is a bias toward dust. The universe is nearly infinite in scale but. according to my cosmology theory, it is composed of near-infinitesimal negative and positive electric charges. The reason that Planck's Length is so important in physics is that this is the scale of these charges. There is a universal bias toward dust because it's scale is exactly halfway between the scale of the universe and the scale of the electric charges of which it is composed. This halfway point in scale forms a "square" which is a lower information point than a rectangle because it's two sides are equal, thus is is the preferred scale for structures of matter.

Matter, like space, is formed of electric charges. The difference between the two being that space is a perfectly alternating checkerboard of negative and positive charges, in multiple dimensions, while matter is a concentration of like charges, held together against their mutual repulsion by energy. Atoms are the "zero unit" of matter, where negative and positive charges get together to form a structure with a net electric charge of zero. The number one rule of the universe is that the two electric charges must always balance out. This rule comes before always seeking the lowest energy state.

Atoms have accomplished the balancing of the electrically charged particles comprising matter to zero. But not completely. With most atoms, there is still some charge imbalance. The way that this is balanced out is a further development, that of molecules. The less-than-perfect electrical balance in atoms, leads most of those atoms to combine into molecules in order to completely alleviate any charge imbalance. It is only those atoms of the inert gases, with completely filled outermost electron shells, that have no remaining electrical imbalance.

But what is so surprising is just how many different molecules can form from so few atoms. At the Big Bang, there were four different original atoms. Ordinary fusion in stars of smaller atoms into larger ones brings about 26 different atoms, up to iron. Application of the energy that is released when a large star explodes in a supernova further fuses atoms together that could not have been formed by the ordinary fusion process. This brings about a total of 92 different atoms, up to uranium.

But out of this relatively few number of different atoms the number of different molecules that can form, no one knows exactly how many, is millions upon millions upon millions. The vast majority of all possible molecules includes carbon, because of it's outstanding ability to form molecules.

The reason that so many different molecules can form from so few different atoms, all because of the imperfection of atoms at resolving the imbalance of electric charges, is that there are two scales that do not coincide, but which must exist together. These two scales are those of space and matter.

The reason that there is a mismatch between the scales of space and matter can be explained by my cosmology theory. The two did not form together, as in conventional theories of the Big Bang. Space formed first, and then matter.

The place where the two scales meet is at the scale of dust, as described above. The scale of dust is halfway between the scale of the infinitesimal electric charges of which the universe is composed, and the scale of the entire universe. The scale of dust is thus based on the scale of space and matter, since it must exist within space, "meets" the scale of space at dust and this is why there is a bias toward dust in the universe and so much of the matter in the universe is in the form of dust.

The scale of matter is much smaller than that of space. The "halfway" scale of space, where the matter that is scattered across it comes to meet it, is the scale of dust. But the dominant structure of matter, atoms, is so much smaller in scale than that of dust.

One way of explaining this is my cosmology theory. Matter originated from a two-dimensional sheet of space that was within, but not contiguous with, the multi-dimensional background space. When one of the two dimensions of the sheet disintegrated in what we perceive as the Big Bang, the matter that originated with the two-dimensional sheet was scattered over four dimensions of the background space. So that is the reason for the great different in primary scale of matter, compared to space. The scale of atoms represents the two dimensions of the original sheet of space that formed matter and the scale of dust represents the four dimensions of space over which the matter was scattered by what we perceive as the Big Bang.

The vast majority of an atom is empty space. The purpose that they serve is to act as a structure that brings about the balance of electric charges. Atoms are composed of both positive and negative charges and the reason that they are the scale they are is the strength of the charges of which they are composed.

But because of this difference in scale between matter and the space that it inhabits, both being composed of the same set of electric charges, atoms do not completely accomplish their objective of being the structures that balance electric charges. That is why atoms group together into molecules and these atoms are attached together by the leftover charge imbalance of atoms.

The reason that just so many different molecules form from so few different atoms can thus be explained simply. There is a simple relationship here. The tremendous number of different molecules that can form, relative to the number of different atoms, is equal to the scale of dust which is the scale of space, relative to the scale of atoms, which is the scale of matter.

Put simply, there is a relationship here similar to the two that we saw in the beginning. The universe favors such relationships because they represent the lowest information point. Essentially as many molecules can form from the few number of atoms from which they form as there are of these atoms in the typical scale of a speck of dust.

The Information of Position

The information on the structure of the matter in the universe can be divided into three parts. This has been added to the information theory on this blog, "The Theory Of Complexity".

The first is what we refer to as the Mass-Energy Equivalence. This is the well-known fact that a given amount of mass is equal to an equivalent amount of energy. Some of the mass is converted into energy in a nuclear reaction but the only way to release all of the energy, so that matter disintegrates back into empty space, is to react it with an equal amount of antimatter, so that both disappear in a fantastic burst of energy.

Again, energy and information is really the same thing because we cannot apply energy to anything without also adding information to it and we cannot add information to anything without applying energy to it. Another way we see that matter and energy is really the same thing is in how we can make our lives physically easier through use of technology, but only at the expense of making them more complex. We can never, on the whole, make our lives physically easier and also less complex.

My cosmology theory explains how the Mass-Energy Equivalence is also information. Empty space consists of alternating negative and positive electric charges in a multi-dimensional checkerboard pattern. This is thus a zero-information state, with no information at all. If we rearrange this pattern in any way, which would have to be a concentration of like charges, we are adding information. This is what my theory has matter as, any concentration of like charges held together by energy, which is the energy of the Mass-Energy Equivalence.

This is the same thing as a computer drive holding information in bits, except that the bits are referred to as being in either a state of 1 or 0, instead of the negative and positive electric charges of which everything in the universe is composed. If we react matter and antimatter together, the arrangements of like electric charges goes back to the perfectly alternating charges of empty space and the information that was held by the arrangement is released as energy, because energy and information is really the same thing. This is why a matter-antimatter reaction would release so much energy.

The second part of the information on the structure of matter in the universe is the energy that is released as radiation. When mass, according to the Mass-Energy equivalence, is converted back to energy, that energy will be released into space by way of electromagnetic radiation. Radiation, like matter, is information but the information, which is held by disrupting the perfect pattern of alternating electric charges in empty space, is spread over a wider area than with matter.

But the third part of the information on the structure of matter in the universe is what we could call the Information Of Position, and that is what our posting today is about.

Let's briefly review the complexity of numbers. A higher number is not necessarily more complex than a lower one. My definition is that the complexity of a number is the value of the denominator when the number is expressed as a ratio or fraction. A number by itself, such as 5, is really 5 / 1. 16 / 1 is no more complex than 5 / 1 because the denominators of both are equal.

A number by itself means essentially nothing. There is meaning only when it is expressed as a ratio with another number or definition such as 5 / eggs.

The information for where everything in the universe is positioned, one star relative to another for example, must come from somewhere. There is a lot of information of position in the universe because the general pattern is very irregular sizing and spacing of objects, although they are made of the same atoms and every atom is theoretically identical to every equivalent atom, meaning that every iron atom is identical to every other iron atom of the same isotope.

The source of the information of position in the universe is the original atoms in the universe, immediately following the Big Bang. In fact, that is the only place that it could have come from. The information for where everything in the universe is positioned, relative to everything else, must somehow be encoded into these first atoms.

The first atoms were a vast number of hydrogen atoms, hydrogen being the lightest and simplest atom. The number of hydrogen atoms is believed to be about a 1 followed by 80 zeroes. This number is far too vast for the human mind to grasp. Let's refer to the number of original hydrogen atoms as H.

As high as this number was, there was not a lot of information in it because the number was really H / 1. Remember that the complexity of a number, the information in it, is the value of the denominator when the number is expressed as a ratio or fraction.

If there had been only these original hydrogen atoms, and they were evenly spaced, there would not be much information in the universe at all. There was no information from anywhere else to make the atoms anything other than evenly spaced so, as these atoms were crunched together by gravity in the stars that formed as the atoms were pulled together, there could only be a universe of everything being identical and evenly spaced, whether stars, solar systems or, galaxies, because there would be no information to make it otherwise.

But now suppose that among all of these original hydrogen atoms, there had been just one single helium atom. Helium is the next heaviest element, after hydrogen. This helium atom would have been barely detectable but, in terms of information, it would have changed everything.

Since one atom is helium, we would now have the information of 1 / H, instead of H / 1, because one atom out of all the hydrogen atoms are of a different atom. It would involve so much information because it would have to be explained why only one atom, and why only this one atom in particular, is helium when all of the others are hydrogen. It would be a manifestation of the pattern that I refer to as "The One And The Many", where the helium atom is the one and all of the hydrogen atoms are the many.

Because all of the other hydrogen atoms are identical, and repetition is not adding complexity, it would go from the very low information state of H / 1, with a complexity level of 1, to it's reciprocal of 1 / H, where the complexity level is H which is the number of the vast amount of hydrogen atoms in the universe. It would be the information of why this one atom, out of all the others, was helium when the others weren't.

What actually happened in the universe was similar in principle. We know that actually about 25 % of the atoms in the universe were helium because atoms formed within minutes of the Big Bang and there was enough energy left over to fuse hydrogen atoms into some heavier ones in what is referred to as primordial nucleo-synthesis. But this is still not much information because it only gives us the ratio of 1 / 4, a complexity level of 4. Clearly the positioning in the universe is much more complex than that.

The universe also had traces of other atoms. There was a small amount, relatively speaking, of deuterium. This is an isotope of hydrogen that has one neutron, where ordinary hydrogen has no neutron. There was also a lighter isotope of helium, with only one neutron instead of the usual two, known as helium-3, but in very small amounts. There was also traces of the next heaviest element, lithium.

It is these trace elements from the Big Bang which formed the reciprocals of the vast numbers of hydrogen and helium atoms to provide all of the information of position in the universe. Without these trace elements being among the first atoms formed, before stars formed much later and crunched lighter elements into heavier ones, the structures of matter in the universe would have to be very simple.

There were four times as many hydrogen as helium atoms, so there could only be manifestations of a complexity of four. There could be four types of identical star, and four possible distances between them, which would be a very simple universe.

But what happened is that the trace elements that formed by Big Bang nucleo-synthesis, the deuterium (hydrogen with a neutron), Helium-3 (helium with only one neutron instead of the usual two) and beryllium, formed reciprocals with the vast numbers of atoms of ordinary hydrogen and helium, and this is where the information came from to create the very complex universe that we see today.